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2 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Psychology Social psychology – The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interactions Social context – The combination of (a)People (b)The activities and interactions among people (c)The setting in which behavior occurs, and (d)The expectations and social norms governing behavior in that setting

3 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How Does the Social Situation Affect our Behavior? We usually adapt our behavior to the demands of the social situation, and in ambiguous situations we take our cues from the behavior of others in that setting

4 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How Does the Social Situation Affect our Behavior? Situationism – The view that environmental conditions influence people’s behavior as much or more than their personal dispositions do

5 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Standards of Behavior Social role – One of several socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group Script – Knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that is expected in a particular setting

6 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Standards of Behavior Social norms – A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behavior Social norms influence students’ political views

7 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 A123 Standard line Comparison lines Conformity: The Asch studies Which line matches the line on the left?

8 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Conformity: The Asch studies What would you say if you were in a room full of people who all picked line number three? A123 Standard line Comparison lines

9 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Conformity No opposition (control) Alone against majority With partner Critical trials Correct estimated (percent)

10 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Group Characteristics That Produce Conformity Ashe identifies three factors that influence whether a person will yield to pressure: The size of the majority The presence of a partner who dissented from the majority The size of the discrepancy between the correct answer and the majority position

11 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Groupthink In “groupthink,” members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group

12 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Conditions Likely to Promote Groupthink Conditions likely to promote groupthink include: Isolation of the group High group cohesiveness Directive leadership Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures Homogeneity of members’ social background and ideology High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader

13 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Obedience to Authority Imagine if an experimenter studying “the effects of punishment on memory” asked you to deliver painful electric shocks to a a middle-aged man who had been treated for a heart condition Each time the man missed an answer, you would be instructed to deliver an increasingly powerful shock

14 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Shock Generator Caution Amps On Intensity Resistance Amp Meter Slight Shock ModerateShock Strong Shock Very Strong Shock Intense Shock Extreme Shock Danger XXX Milgram’s Shock Generator Would you deliver a “Moderate Shock?”

15 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Shock Generator Caution Amps On Intensity Resistance Amp Meter Slight Shock Moderate Shock Strong Shock Very Strong Shock Intense Shock ExtremeShock Danger XXX Milgram’s Shock Generator Would you refuse the experimenter’s instruction to deliver an “Extreme Shock?”

16 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Shock Generator Caution Amps On Intensity Resistance Amp Meter Slight Shock Moderate Shock Strong Shock Very Strong Shock Intense Shock ExtremeShock Danger XXX Milgram’s Shock Generator What if the victim was screaming in agony?

17 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Shock Generator Caution Amps On Intensity Resistance Amp Meter Slight Shock Moderate Shock Strong Shock Very Strong Shock Intense Shock Extreme Shock Danger XXX Milgram’s Shock Generator Two thirds of participants delivered the maximum 450 volts to the learner

18 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Obedience to Authority In Milgram’s experiment The victim was an actor The victim receive no actual shocks Nevertheless, this controversial experiment demonstrated how powerful effects of obedience to authority Situational factors, and not personality variables, appeared to effect people’s levels of obedience

19 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Obedience in Milgram’s Experiments

20 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Ten Steps Toward Evil- Getting Good People to Harm Others Provide people with an ideology to justify beliefs for actions Make people take a small first step toward a harmful act with a minor, trivial action and then gradually increase those small actions Make those in charge seem like a “just authority” Slowly transform a once compassionate leader into a dictatorial figure Provide people with vague and ever changing rules

21 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Ten Steps Toward Evil- Getting Good People to Harm Others Relabel the situation’s actors and their actions to legitimize the ideology Provide people with social models of compliance Allow verbal dissent but only if people continue to comply behaviorally with orders Encourage dehumanizing the victim Make exiting the situation difficult

22 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Bystander Problem Diffusion of responsibility – Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members

23 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Bystander Problem In one experiment, a student was led to believe that the he or she was taking part in an experiment with between one and five other students (over an intercom) The student then heard what sounded like another student having a seizure and gasping for help The researchers timed how long it would take the students to ask for help

24 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Bystander Intervention in an Emergency 2-person groups 3-person groups 6-person groups Seconds from beginning of emergency Percentage helping

25 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others? The judgments we make about others depend not only on their behavior but also on our interpretation of their actions within a social context

26 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others? Social reality – An individual’s subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them

27 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Interpersonal Attraction Reward theory of attraction – A social learning view that says we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost ProximitySimilarity Self-Disclosure Physical Attractiveness

28 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Expectations and the Influence of Self-Esteem Matching hypothesis – Prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are about their same level of attractiveness Expectancy-value theory – Theory that people decide whether or not to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectations of success in establishing the relationship

29 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Attraction and Self-Justification Cognitive dissonance – A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes

30 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Making Cognitive Attributions Fundamental attribution error – Tendency to emphasize internal causes and ignore external pressures Self-serving bias – Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success but denies responsibility for failure

31 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice – A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group Discrimination – A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership

32 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination In-group – The group with which an individual identifies Out-group – Those outside the group with which an individual identifies Social distance – The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person

33 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance

34 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition

35 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating

36 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating Conformity to Social Norms

37 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Causes of Prejudice Dissimilarity and Social Distance Economic Competition Scapegoating Conformity to Social Norms Media Stereotypes

38 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Combating Prejudice Research suggests that the possible tools for combating prejudice include: New role models Equal status contact Legislation

39 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Loving Relationships Romantic love – A temporary and highly emotional condition based on infatuation and sexual desire

40 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Passion IntimacyCommitment

41 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The power of the situation can help us understand violence and terrorism, but the broader understanding requires multiple perspectives that go beyond the boundaries of traditional psychology What Are the Roots of Violence and Terrorism?

42 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in Conflict In the Robber’s Cave experiment, conflict between groups arose from an intensely competitive situation Cooperation, however, replaced conflict when the experimenters contrived situations that fostered mutual interdependence and common goals for the groups

43 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in Conflict Violence and aggression – Terms that refer to behavior that is intended to cause harm Cohesiveness – Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership

44 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in Conflict Mutual interdependence – Shared sense that individuals or groups need each other in order to achieve common goals

45 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Terrorism Terrorism – The use of violent, unpredictable acts by a small group against a larger group for political, economic, or religious goals Taking multiple perspectives can provide important insights on the problems of aggression, violence, and terrorism

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon End of Chapter 14