X. Social Psychology

A. SP approach to behavior.. 1. Definition: The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Social psych. approach to human behavior: Social psychologists focus on causes of behavior in the environment (including other people). Stress impact of the situation, presence of others. vs....... Lewin: B = D + S

B. Why this approach? 1. Attribution: How people infer the cause of an event or explain behavior. a. Heider – internal vs. external attributions b. Fundamental Attribution Error: When judging other people’s behavior, people tend to overestimate the dispositional or internal influences on behavior, and underestimate situational or external influences on behavior Ross et al. (1977) – “Quiz Show Study”

B. Why this approach? 2. Attitudes - An evaluation, either positive, negative, or neutral, of a person, object, event, etc., that is exhibited in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

B. Why this approach? b. Do attitudes cause or predict behavior? LaPiere (1934) B = D + S Better question (according to soc. psych.) - when? Attitude is more likely to predict behavior when: - Attitude formed from active experience (Fazio et al., 1977) - Self-Awareness More self-aware, more attitudes = behavior. (Diener & Wallbom, 1979 – mirror study) attitudes ⇒ behavior.....

B. Why this approach? Behavior ⇒ attitudes 3. Does behavior influence or create attitudes? “Doing/saying is believing” – (particularly with less formed attitudes) a. Role Playing Zimbardo (Standford) Prison Study (1972) Freedman & Fraser (1966): “ugly sign” study b. Foot-in-the-Door Effect Tendency for people who have complied with a small request to be more willing to comply with a larger request later. Low-Ball Technique

B. Why this approach? - Stems from the need to be consistent. c. Why does behavior influence attitudes? - Stems from the need to be consistent. Cognitive dissonance: An aversive state of arousal or tension that develops when we have two inconsistent thoughts or behaviors. Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) – “knob turning”

B. Why this approach? State occurs when: c. Insufficient justification: There is no external reason for behavior. to reduce or eliminate aversive feeling, find internal reason to justify behavior, which often means changing one’s attitude. (“bring attitude in line with behavior”) vs. Overjustification?

Why do we care? Empathy Tolerance

C. Social perception and thinking Place our social world into a context... 1. Review: Confirmation Bias, Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, Memory, etc. Power of expectations 2. Applying these ideas to stereotyping and prejudice

2. Stereotyping and Prejudice Powerful tendency to categorize, see patterns. In social perception – dominant category: “us” vs. “them” or in-groups/out-groups Sometimes accompanied by negative characteristics (stereotypes) Apply other concepts….. Stereotype threat – documented impact on performance

Current theory: PC Unconscious stereotypes/prejudices https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/measureyourattitudes.html

C. Social Influence 1. Persuasion: Purposely attempting to change attitudes or behavior. Compliance Techniques Sometimes based on people’s need for information. Social Proofs: determine what is correct behavior by looking at others.

C. Social Influence 1. Persuasion Informational influence: change in behavior that results from accepting evidence about reality provided by other people. Why people use “experts” to persuade others. **Typically leads to acceptance.

C. Social Influence Is that always why we go along with others or are influenced by others? 2. Conformity: A change in behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure. - Asch (1955): Line Study

C. Social Influence Another type of influence: Normative Influence: Changing behavior to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Typically leads to compliance. a. Normative vs. Informational Influence b. Factors that influence conformity: unanimity vs. power of the dissenter status, cohesion

C. Social Influence Up the ante…. 3. Obedience: Milgram (1965) Yielding to a direct request from a person in a position of authority. How far would you go? 65% of participants went to 450 volts.

Influences on obedience: Less obedience: Move learner close to teacher. Teacher must touch learner. Experimenter moves away from teacher. Another participant is the experimenter. Two other participants refuse to obey. More obedience: Two other participants unquestionably obey Concerns or other interoperations?

C. Social Influence 4. Existing in Groups: a. Work Social Loafing: The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable. Free riders vs. Suckers How to eliminate social loafing?

C. Social Influence 4. Existing in groups. b. Play - Being in a group fosters anonymity and draws attention away from individual (reduces self-awareness). Feel like not identifiable and not responsible. Yet people can become more aroused in groups. Deindividuation: When in groups, people often abandon normal restraint. - Diener et al., (1976): Trick or Treaters Study

D. Social Relations 2. Is there “true” altruism? Helping Others empathy Helping Others Kitty Genovese What about THE SITUATION influences helping. Latane and Darley: Several step process; must complete all steps for helping to occur.

D. Social Relations Must notice the event. After noticing the event, must interpret it as an emergency. Latane & Darley (1970) -“Smoke-filled Room” study b. Pluralistic Ignorance: In an ambiguous situation, we assume that when other people appear unconcerned, that the situation is not an emergency.

D. Social Relations Must assume responsibility. Latane & Darley (1974) - “Seizure Study” Diffusion of responsibility or bystander effect: When you know there is an emergency, and you do not help because you think other people will. Must know how to give help. Must decide to help.

D. Social Relations Hurting others - Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone or something. - MULTIPLE CAUSES a. Review – social learning theory b. Frustration-Aggression Theory Importance of Frustration: Blocking of a goal-directed behavior causes people to become angry - that anger can lead to aggression. More we desire or expect to achieve goal, the more frustration experienced, more aggression expressed. Example: Ulricht & Flavell (1970) – “tower building” study

D. Social Relations a. Physical attractiveness “What is beautiful is good” - halo effect Evidence: Hatfield et al. (1966) “Welcome Week Dance Study” What is considered attractive? Average, symmetrical women: baby-faced men: mature & dominant

D. Social Relations b. Proximity: Geographical or functional nearness. Evidence? Festinger et al., (1950) Mere exposure: The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after repeated exposure to stimuli. - mirror vs. picture image of self

Conclusions… Social psychology: Study how normal people, in everyday life, often behavior similarly, due to the situation. Do social psychologists disregard the “internal” part? No. Personality...