Thinking Geographically Chapter 1 Thinking Geographically

Key Issues How do geographers describe where things are? Why is each point on Earth unique? Why are different places similar?

An In-depth Social Science Many people have misconceptions about geography and think of the discipline as simply an exercise in memorizing place names.

Where we find Geography Geography exists in the global issues receiving attention at this time. Things such as… Population growth Terrorism Cultural diffusion. Diffusion is defined as the spread of linguistic or cultural practices or innovations within a community or from one community to another.

Location, Location, Location Geography's importance can also be established by looking at community issues, such as: Water supply Pollution Growth management Housing Retail Openings Closures

Thinking Geographically In addition to political rule, boundaries can be drawn based on various components of culture including language, religion, values.

Questions to Ponder Where would the most desirable places to live be located? What impacts would this population increase cause?

Every Story Can be approached from a Geographer’s Perspective Consider natural events and natural disasters. Do humans choose to live in harm’s way?

Spatial analysis Geography by its nature is a spatial science. Geographers therefore study space in order to locate the distribution of people and objects. Geographers ask two main questions, “where” and “why.” Spatial analysis is concerned with analyzing regularities achieved through interaction. Regularities result in a distinctive distribution of a feature. Distribution has three properties: Density Concentration Pattern

Relevance Geographers observe that people are being pulled in opposite directions by two different factors: globalization and local diversity. Tensions between these simultaneous geographic trends underlie many of the world’s problems that geographers study. Political conflicts Economic uncertainty Pollution of the environment

Maps The most important tool for geographers is a map. Two-dimensional or flat-scale model of Earth’s surface, or a portion of it. Cartography: the science of mapmaking. Serve two purposes Tool for storing reference material. Tool for communicating geographic information. Often the best means for showing the distribution of human activities or physical features, as well as thinking about reasons underlying a distribution.

Projection The method of transferring location on Earth’s surface to a flat map is called projection. Earth’s spherical shape poses a challenge for cartographers because drawing Earth on a flat surface unavoidably produces distortion.

Distortion Four types of distortion Shape Distance Relative size Direction between points

Examples of Map Projections Robinson Projection Azimuthal Projection Goode’s Interrupted Projection

Map Scale The scale of a map is the relation of a feature’s size on a map and its actual size on Earth’s surface. Fraction (1/24,000) Ratio (1:24,000) Written statement (1 inch equals 1 mile) Graphic bar scale

Graphic Scale A graphic scale usually consists of a bar line marked to show distances on Earth’s surface. The bar line is used by measuring a distance on the map, then reading that distance along the bar line. The appropriate scale for a map depends on the information being portrayed.

Washington State (1:10 million scale)

Western Washington (1:1 million scale)

Seattle Region (1:100,000 scale)

Downtown Seattle, Washington (1:10,000 scale)

Scale Differences: Maps of Florida Fig. 1-3: The effects of scale in maps of Florida. (Scales from 1:10 million to 1:10,000)

Spatial Association at Various Scales Fig. 1-13: Death rates from cancer in the U.S., Maryland, and Baltimore show different patterns that can identify associations with different factors.

Contemporary Tools GIS A geographic information system (GIS) is a high- performance computer system that processes geographic data. Each type of information (topography, political boundaries, population density, manufacturing, etc.) is stored as an information layer. GIS is most powerful when it is used to combine several layers, to show relations.

Layers of a GIS Fig. 1-5: A geographic information system (GIS) stores information about a location in several layers. Each layer represents a different category of information.

GPS

Site: Lower Manhattan Island Site vs. Situation Site: Lower Manhattan Island Fig. 1-6: Site of lower Manhattan Island, New York City. There have been many changes to the area over the last 200 years.

Singapore Situation Fig. 1-7: Singapore is situated at a key location for international trade.

Djibouti Pakistan

World Geographic Grid Fig. 1-8: The world geographic grid consists of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude. The prime meridian (0º) passes through Greenwich, England.

World Time Zones Fig. 1-9: The world’s 24 standard time zones are often depicted using the Mercator projection.

Formal and Functional Regions Fig. 1-11: The state of Iowa is an example of a formal region; the areas of influence of various television stations are examples of functional regions.

Vernacular Regions Fig. 1-12: A number of factors are often used to define the South as a vernacular region, each of which identifies somewhat different boundaries.

Vernacular Region Kurdistan

What is Culture? Your book defines culture as a body of customary beliefs, material trades, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people. The Latin root of culture is cultus, which means to care for. Example Agriculture (term for growing things)

Diffusion Diffusion is the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to another over time. The place of origin of the characteristic is called the hearth. For example – US, Canadian, and many Latin cultures can be traced back to the European Hearth. There are two basic types of diffusion: Relocation diffusion Expansion diffusion Expansion Diffusion includes… Hierarchical diffusion Contagious diffusion Stimulus diffusion

Space-Time Compression (1492–1962) Fig. 1-20: The times required to cross the Atlantic, or orbit the Earth, illustrate how transport improvements have shrunk the world.

Cultural Ecology Geographers also consider environmental factors as well as cultural factors, when looking at regions. This is cultural ecology. Basically, this is the geographic study of human-environmental relations. In the 19th Century – some geographers said that human actions were caused by environmental conditions. (environmental determinism) This is rejected by modern geographers that say some environmental conditions limit human actions. (possibilism) Of course now we are realizing that humans can actually adjust their environment. (For good or bad)

Environmental Modification in the Netherlands Fig. 1-15: Polders and dikes have been used for extensive environmental modification in the Netherlands.

Environmental Modification in Florida View of Miami Beach The barrier Island - Orchid Island. Fig. 1-16: Straightening the Kissimmee River has had many unintended side effects.