The Case primitive: matches the evaluated key form against the unevaluated keys by using eql The general format of case is the following: (case (... )..... (... )) Example: * (setf object 'sphere r 2) 2 * (case object (circle (* pi r r)) (sphere (* 4 pi r r)))

The key may be an atom or a list; in the latter case the list is searched for the key by means of the member predicate Example: * (case object ((circle wheel) (* pi r r)) ((ball sphere) (* 4 pi r r)) (otherwise 0)) ; if none of the clauses is triggered, case ; returns NIL, the otherwise clause (or t) ; can be used to set the returned value.

The problem reduction technique Divide the problem into sub-problems each of which can be handled separately. Example: the both-ends procedure (defun both-ends (whole-list) (case (length whole-list) (0....) ==> (0 nil) (1....) ==> (1 (cons (first whole-list) whole-list)) (2....) ==> (2 whole-list) (t....))) ==> (t (cons (first whole-list) (last whole-list)))))

The procedure abstraction technique: arrange procedures into “abstraction” layers. Example: the both-ends procedure * (defun both-ends (whole-list) (make-list (get-first-el whole-list) (get-last-el whole-list))) BOTH-ENDS * (defun make-list (el-1 el-2) (list el-1 el-2)) MAKE-LIST * (defun get-first-el (list-1) (first list-1)) GET-FIRST-EL * (defun get-last-el (list-1) (first (last list-1))) GET-LAST-EL

Defvar and defparameter define global variables (defvar *global*) declares *global* as a global variable. (defvar *global* expression) assigns a value to *global* (defparameter *global* expression) declares *global* as a global variable, and assings a value to it. Examples: * (defvar *var-1*) * (defparameter *par-1*) *VAR-1* ERROR * (defvar *var-1* 222) * (defparameter *par-1* 77) *VAR-1* 77 * *var-1* * *par-1* * (defvar *var-1* 333) * (defparameter *par-1* 88) *VAR-1* *PAR-1* * *var-1* * *par-1*

Singly recursive procedures: each recursive call originates only one new call Example: compute the “n” power of m. * (defun exponent (m n) (if (zerop n) 1 (* m (exponent m (- n 1))))) EXPONENT * (exponent 2 3) 8 The behavior of recursive procedures can be observed by means of the trace primitive. Untrace will undo the effect of trace. These have the following syntax: (trace ) (untrace )

* (trace exponent) (EXPONENT) * (exponent 2 3) | 1 Entering: EXPONENT, argument-list: (2 3) | 2 Entering: EXPONENT, argument-list: (2 2) | | 3 Entering: EXPONENT, argument-list: (2 1) | | 4 Entering: EXPONENT, argument-list: (2 0) | | 4 Exiting: EXPONENT, value 1 | | 3 Exiting: EXPONENT, value 2 | 2 Exiting: EXPONENT, value 4 | 1 Exiting: EXPONENT, value 8 8

Doubly recursive procedures: each call originates two recursive calls Example: compute Fibonacci numbers * (defun fibonacci (n) (if (or (= n 0) (= n 1)) 1 (+ (fibonacci (- n 1)) (fibonacci (- n 2))))) FIBONACCI * (fibonacci 5) 8 * (trace fibonacci) (FIBONACCI)

* (fibonacci 5) | 1 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (5) | 2 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (4) | | 3 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (3) | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (2) | | | 5 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (1) | | | 5 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | | 5 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (0) | | | 5 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 2 | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (1) | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 3 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 3 | | 3 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (2) | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (1) | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (0) | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 3 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 2 | 2 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 5 | 2 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (3) | | 3 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (2) | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (1) | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 4 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (0) | | 4 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | | 3 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 2 | | 3 Entering: FIBONACCI, argument-list: (1) | | 3 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 1 | 2 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 3 | 1 Exiting: FIBONACCI, value 8 8

Tail recursive procedures: a way to make recursion efficient Example: compute the number of elements in a list (version 1) * (defun count-elements-1 (list-1) (if (endp list-1) 0 (+ 1 (count-elements-1 (rest list-1))))) COUNT-ELEMENTS-1 * (setf list-1 '(a b c d)) * (count-elements-1 list-1) | 1 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, argument-list: ((A B C D)) | 2 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, argument-list: ((B C D)) | | 3 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, argument-list: ((C D)) | | 4 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, argument-list: ((D)) | | | 5 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, argument-list: (NIL) | | | 5 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, value 0 | | 4 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, value 1 | | 3 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, value 2 | 2 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, value 3 | 1 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-1, value 4 4

Tail recursion (cont.) Example: compute the number of elements in a list (version 2) * (defun count-elements-2 (list-1) (count-elements-2-aux list-1 0)) COUNT-ELEMENTS-2 * (defun count-elements-2-aux (list-1 result) (if (endp list-1) result (count-elements-2-aux (rest list-1) (+ 1 result)))) COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX * (count-elements-2 list-1) | 1 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, argument-list: ((A B C D) 0) | 2 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, argument-list: ((B C D) 1) | | 3 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, argument-list: ((C D) 2) | | 4 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, argument-list: ((D) 3) | | | 5 Entering: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, argument-list: (NIL 4) | | | 5 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, value 4 | | 4 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, value 4 | | 3 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, value 4 | 2 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, value 4 | 1 Exiting: COUNT-ELEMENTS-2-AUX, value 4 4

The Tower of Hanoi example Version 1: uses a doubly recursive procedure. * (defun tower-of-hanoi-1 (list-of-disks) (if (endp list-of-disks) 0 (+ (tower-of-hanoi-1 (rest list-of-disks)) 1 (tower-of-hanoi-1 (rest list-of-disks))))) TOWER-OF-HANOI-1 Version 2: uses a singly recursive procedure. * (defun tower-of-hanoi-2 (list-of-disks) (if (endp list-of-disks) 0 (+ 1 (* 2 (tower-of-hanoi-2 (rest list-of-disks)))))) TOWER-OF-HANOI-2

Iteration control structure: the DOTIMES primitive Dotimes supports iteration on numbers. It has the following format: (dotimes ( ) ) When dotimes is entered, the upper-bound form is evaluated resulting in a number, say n. Numbers between 0 and n-1 are assigned to the count parameter one by one, and for each one of these numbers the body is evaluated. Finally, the result form is evaluated, and its value is returned by dotimes (if the result form is missing, dotimes returns NIL).

Example: compute the “n” power of m. * (defun exponent-2 (m n) (let ((result 1)) (dotimes (count n result) (setf result (* m result)) ))) (print result) EXPONENT-2 * (trace exponent-2) (EXPONENT-2) * (exponent-2 3 3) | 1 Entering: EXPONENT-2, argument-list: (3 3) ; trace is not very useful here. | 1 Exiting: EXPONENT-2, value 27 ; Incorporating print forms to see 27 ; intermediate results is better.

Dolist supports iteration on lists. Its format is the following: (dolist ( ) ) When dolist is entered, the list form is evaluated returning a list of elements. Each one of them is assigned to the element parameter, and the body is evaluated. Finally, the result form is evaluated, and its value is returned by dolist (if the result form is missing, dolist returns NIL). Iteration control stucture: the DOLIST primitive

Example: count number of a’s in a list. * (defun count-a (list-1) (let ((result 0)) (dolist (element list-1 result) (when (eql element 'a) (setf result (+ 1 result)))))) COUNT-A * (setf list-1 '(a s d f a s d w a a)) (A S D F A S D W A A) * (count-a list-1) 4

DOTIMES and DOLIST can be terminated by the (return ) form Whenever (return ) is encountered, dotimes/dolist terminates and returns the value of. Example: does the list contain at least “n” a’s? If yes, return them as soon as they are found. * (defun find-n-a (n list-1) (let ((result 0) (a-list nil)) (dolist (element list-1 a-list) (cond ((<= n result) (return a-list)) ((eql element 'a) (setf result (+ 1 result)) (setf a-list (cons element a-list))))))) FIND-N-A * (find-n-a 2 list-1) (A A)

The DO primitive works on both numbers and lists, and is more general than DOTIMES and DOLIST Do has the following format: (do (( ) ( ) ….. ( )) ( ) ) When do is entered, its parameters are set to their initial values in parallel (in the same way as in the let form). If there are no parameters, an empty parameter list must be provided. The termination test is evaluated always before the body is evaluated. If it succeeds, intermediate forms and the result form are evaluated; the value of the result form is returned by do (if no result form is given, do returns NIL).

Example: compute “n” power of m Version 1: * (defun exponent-3 (m n) (do ((result 1) (exponent n)) ((zerop exponent) result) (setf result (* m result)) (setf exponent (- exponent 1)))) EXPONENT-3 * (exponent-3 3 3) 27 Version 2: * (defun exponent-4 (m n) (do ((result 1) (exponent n)) ( ) (when (zerop exponent) (return result)) (setf result (* m result)) (setf exponent (- exponent 1)))) EXPONENT-4 * (exponent-4 3 3) 27

DO* assigns initial values to parameters sequentially (like let*) Example which does not work * (defun exponent-5 (m n) (do ((result m (* m result)) (exponent n (- exponent 1)) (counter (- exponent 1) (- exponent 1))) ((zerop counter) result))) EXPONENT-5 * (exponent-5 3 3) *** Debugger warning: leftover specials *** >>> Error: {Determining function in error.} >>> Error:Unbound variable: EXPONENT (#...) DO* solves the problem. * (defun exponent-6 (m n) (do* ((result m (* m result)) (exponent n (- exponent 1)) (counter (- exponent 1) (- exponent 1))) ((zerop counter) result))) EXPONENT-6 A better solution: * (defun exponent-7 (m n) (do* ((result 1 (* m result)) (exponent n (- exponent 1)) (counter exponent (- counter 1))) ((zerop counter) result))) EXPONENT-7

The LOOP primitive implements infinite loop if (return ) is not encountered Loop has the following format: (loop ) Example: count the number of elements in a list. * (setf list-1 '(a b c d e)) (A B C D E) * (setf count-elements 0) 0 * (loop (when (endp list-1) (return count-elements)) (setf count-elements (+ 1 count-elements)) (setf list-1 (rest list-1))) 5

The PROG1 and PROGN primitives allow several forms to be viewed as a group in which forms are evaluated sequentially. n Prog1 has the following form: (prog1 … ). All forms are evaluated, and prog1 returns the value of the first form. n Progn has the following form: (progn … ). All forms are evaluated, and progn returns the value of the last form. Example: * (prog1 (eql 'a 'a) (setf a 5)) T * (progn (eql 'a 'a) (setf a 5)) 5

The FORMAT primitive: produces more elegant printing than PRINT Example: * (format t "Hi there!")Hi there! ; the t argument says that the output should be ; printed at the terminal. The returned value is NIL ; NIL To print a string on a new line, the ~% directive should be placed at the beginning of the string: * (format t "~%Hi there!") Hi there! NIL The TERPRI primitive also moves the cursor to a new line. For example: * (prog1 (terpri) (format t "Hi")) Hi NIL The ~& directive tells format to print on a new line, if it is not already on a new line, while the ~a directive tells format to insert the value of an additional argument which appears after format’s string.

More examples * (progn (format t "~%Student name: ~a" name) (format t "~&Major: ~a" major)) Student name: ANNA Major: CS NIL * (format t "~%Student name: ~10a Major: ~10a" name major) Student name: ANNA Major: CS NIL * (format t "~%Student name: ~20a Major: ~10a" name major) Student name: ANNA Major: CS NIL

The Read primitive reads a value from the keyboard Examples: * (read)hello ; the input is typed immediately after read. HELLO * (setf greetings (read))hi ; the input can be assigned to a variable. HI * greetings HI * (setf greetings (read))(hi there!) ; if the input contains more (HI THERE!) ; than one symbol it must be enclosed in a list. * greetings (HI THERE!)

Print and read used in combination allow for a more informative dialog Example: * (prog1 (print '(Please enter your name)) (setf name (read)) (print (append '(hi) (list name) '(how are you today?)))) (PLEASE ENTER YOUR NAME) neli (HI NELI HOW ARE YOU TODAY?) (PLEASE ENTER YOUR NAME) * name NELI Do not use “:” in the print argument; for example, name: will be understood as a reference to a package which does not exist and will result in an error.

Read, Terpri and Format in combination can also be used for a more informative dialog Example: * (prog1 (terpri) (format t "Please enter your name : ") (setf name (read)) (terpri) (format t "Hi ~a how are you today?" name)) Please enter your name : neli Hi NELI how are you today? NIL Notice the space between “name” and “:” in the format statement.