Calculating Clearance and Force Round disk of 5.0” dia. is to be blanked from 1100S aluminum alloy sheet of 1/4” with shear strength = 7,000 lb/in2. Determine (a) punch and die diameters, and (b) blanking force. Clearance: C = at Cutting forces: F = StL

Calculation for Sheet-metal Bending Metal to be bent with a modulus of elasticity E = 30x106 lb/in2., yield strength Y = 40,000lb/in2 , and tensile strength TS = 65,000 lb/in2. Determine (a) starting blank size, and (b) bending force if V-die will be used with a die opening dimension D = 1.0in. (a) Bending Allowance: BA = 2pA(R + Kbat)/360 Kba - factor to estimate stretching. If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33; and if R>=2t, Kba =0.5. (b) Bending force: F = (KbfTSwt2)/D Kbf – a constant that counts for differences in an actual bending processes. For V-bending Kbf =1.33, and for edge bending Kbf =0.33

Chapter 17 Sheet Forming Processes (Part 2) Drawing & Stretching, Alternative Methods, Pipe Welding, and Presses EIN 3390 Manufacturing Processes Spring 2012 3

17.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes Drawing refers to the family of operations where plastic flow occurs over a curved axis and the flat sheet is formed into a three-dimensional part with a depth more than several times the thickness of the metal Application: a wide range of shapes, from cups to large automobile and aerospace panels.

17.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes Types of Drawing and Stretching Spinning Shear forming or flow turning Stretch forming Deep drawing and shallow drawing Rubber-tool forming Sheet hydroforming Tube hydroforming Hot drawing High-energy-rate forming Ironing Embossing Superplastic sheet forming

17.4 Spinning Spinning is a cold forming operation Sheet metal is rotated and progressively shaped over a male form, or mandrel Produces rotationally symmetrical shapes Cones, spheres, hemispheres, cylinders, bells, and parabolas

Spinning Figure 17-34 (Above) Progressive stages in the spinning of a sheet metal product.

Spinning

Spinning Figure 17-35 (Left) Two stages in the spinning of a metal reflector. (Courtesy of Spincraft, Inc. New Berlin, WI.)

Spinning Tooling cost can be extremely low. The form block can often be made of hardwood or even plastic because of localized compression from metal. With automation, spinning can also be used to mass- produce high-volume items such as lamp reflectors, cooking utensils, bowls, and bells. Spinning is usually considered for simple shapes that can be directly withdrawn from a one-piece form. More complex shapes, such as those with reentrant angles, can be spun over multipiece or offset forms.

Shear Forming Shear forming is a version of spinning A modification of the spinning process in which each element of the blank maintains its distance from the axis of rotation. No circumferential shrinkage Wall thickness of product, tc will vary with the angle of the particular region: tc = tb(sin a) where tb is the thickness of the starting blank. Reductions in wall thickness as high as 8:1 are possible, but the limit is usually set at about 5:1, or 80%

Shearing Forming

Direct Shear Forming Material being formed moves in the same direction as the roller Figure 17-36 Schematic representation of the basic shear-forming process.

Reverse Shear Forming Material being formed moves in the opposite direction as the roller By controlling the position and feed of the forming roller, the reverse process can be used to shape con- cave, convex, or conical parts without a matching form block.

Stretch Forming An attractive means of producing large sheet metal parts in low or limited quantities. A sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of jaws with stretching or wrapping around a single form block. Figure 17-39 Schematic of a stretch-forming operation.

Stretch Forming Most deformation is induced by the tensile stretching, so the forces on the form block are far less than those encouraged in bending or forming. Very little springback and the workpiece conforms very closed to the shape of the tool. Wrinkles are pulled out before they occur since stretching accompanies bending or wrapping

Stretch Forming Form blocks can be made of wood, low-melting-point metal, or even plastic because forces on form block are low. Quite popular in the aircraft industry to form aluminum, stainless steel into cowling, wing tip, scoop, and other large panels. Low-carbon steel can be stretched to produce large panels for automotive and truck industry. If mating male and female dies are used to shape the metal while it is being stretched, the process is known as stretch-draw forming.

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing Drawing is typically used to form solid-bottom cylindrical or rectangular containers from sheet metal. When depth of the product is greater than its diameter, it is known “Deep drawing”. When depth of the product is less than its diameter, it is known “shallow drawing”. Figure 17-40 Schematic of the deep-drawing process.

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing Key variables: Blank and punch diameter Punch and die radius Clearance Thickness of the blank Lubrication Hold-down pressure Figure 17-4 Flow of material during deep drawing. Note the circumferential compression as the radius is pulled inward

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing During drawing, the material is pulled inward, so its circumference decrease. Since the volume of material must be the same, V0 = Vf the decrease in circumferential dimension must be compensated by a increase in another dimension, such as thickness or radial length. Since the material is thin, an alternative is to relieve the circumferential compression by bulking or wrinkling. The wrinkling formation can be suppressed by compressing the sheet between die and blankholder service.

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing The hold-down force is independent of the punch position. The restraining force can be varied during the drawing operation. Multi-action presses are usually specified for the drawing of more complex parts. Figure 17-42 Drawing on a double-action press, where blankholder uses the second press action

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing Once a drawing process has been designed and the tooling manufactured, the primary variable for process adjustment is hold-down pressure or blankhoder force. If the force is too low, wrinkling may occur at the start of the stroke. If it is too high, there is too much restrain, and the descending punch will tear the disk or some portion of the already-formed cup wall.

Deep Drawing Thin As cup depth increases or material is thin, there is an increased tendency for forming the defects. Thick

Limitations of Deep Drawing Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions Figure 17-45 Pierced blanked, and drawn part before and after trimming

Defects in Drawing Parts

Forming with Rubber Tooling or Fluid Pressure Blanking and drawing operations usually require mating male and female die sets Processes have been developed that seek to Reduce tooling cost Decrease setup time and expense Extend the amount of deformation for a single set of tools

Alternative Forming Operations Several forming operations replace one of the dies with rubber or fluid pressure Guerin process Other forming operations use fluid or rubber to transmit the pressure required to expand a metal blank Bulging Figure 17-47 Method of blanking sheet metal using the Guerin process. Figure 17-48 Method of bulging tubes with rubber tooling.

Guerin Process (Rubber-die forming) Guerin process was developed by aircraft industry for small number of duplicate parts. The sheet materials can be aluminum up to (1/8”) thick and stainless steel up to 1/16”. Magnesium sheet can also be formed if it is heated and shaped over heated form block.

Sheet Hydroforming Sheet hydroforming is a family of processes in which a rubber bladder backed by fluid pressure replaces either the solid punch or female die set Advantages Reduced cost of tooling Deeper parts can be formed without fracture Excellent surface finish Accurate part dimensions

Sheet Hydroforming

Sheet Hydroforming Figure 17-50 (Above) One form of sheet hydroforming. Figure 17-51 Two-sheet hydroforming, or pillow forming.

Tube Hydroforming Process for manufacturing strong, lightweight, tubular components Frequently used process for automotive industry Advantages Lightweight, high-strength materials Designs with varying thickness or varying cross section can be made Welded assemblies can be replaced by one-piece components Disadvantages Long cycle time Relatively high tooling cost and process setup Figure 17-52 Tube hydroforming. (a) Process schematic.

Additional Drawing Operations Hot-drawing Sheet metal has a large surface area and small thickness, so it cools rapidly Most sheet forming is done at mildly elevated temperatures High-Energy Rate Forming (HERF) Large amounts of energy in a very short time Underwater explosions, underwater spark discharge, pneumatic-mechanical means, internal combustion of gaseous mixtures, rapidly formed magnetic fields Ironing Process that thins the walls of a drawn cylinder by passing it between a punch and a die

Hot-Drawing Processes Figure 17-5 Methods of hot drawing a cup-shaped part. (Up left) First draw. (Up right) Redraw operation. (Lower) Multi-die draw. (Courtesy of United States Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, PA)

Explosive Forming Processes

Ironing Processes

Additional Drawing Operations Embossing Pressworking process in which raised lettering or other designs are impressed in sheet material Superplastic sheet forming Materials that can elongate in the range of 2000 to 3000% can be used to form large, complex-shaped parts with ultra-fine grain size and performing the deformation at low strain rates and elevated temperature. Superplastic forming techniques are similar to that of thermoplastics

Embossing Process

Properties of Sheet Material Tensile strength of the material is important in determining which forming operations are appropriate. Sheet metal is often anisotropic- properties vary with direction or orientation. A metal with low-yield, high-tensile, and high-uniform elongation has a good mechanical property for sheet-forming operations. Majority of failures during forming occur due to thinning or fracture Strain analysis can be used to determine the best orientation for forming

Engineering Analysis of Drawing

Engineering Analysis of Drawing

Engineering Analysis of Drawing It is important to assess the limitation of the amount of drawing that can be accomplished. Measures of Drawing: 1) Drawing ratio (cylinder) DR = Db/Dp Where Db – blank diameter, Dp – punch diameter The greater the ratio, the more severe is the drawing. An approximate upper limit on the drawing ratio is a value of 2.0. The actual limiting value for a given drawing depends on punch and die corner radii (Dp and Dd), friction conditions, depth of draw, and characteristics of the sheet metal (ductility, degree of directinality of strength in the metal).

Engineering Analysis of Drawing 2) Reduction r (another way to characterize a given drawing) r = (Db - Dp )/Db It is very closely related to drawing ratio. Consistent with Dr <= 2.0, the value of r should be less than 0.5. 3) Thickness-to-diameter ratio: t/Db Where t – thickness of the starting blank, Db – blank diameter. The ratio t/Db is greater than 1%. As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases. If DR , r, t/Db are exceeded by the design, blank must be draw in two or more steps, sometimes with annealing between steps.

Engineering Analysis of Drawing Example: Cup Drawing For a cylindrical cup with inside diameter = 3.0” and height = 2.0”, its starting blank size Db = 5.5”, and its thickness t = 3/32”, please indicate its manufacturing feasibility. Solution: DR = Db/Dp = 5.5/3.0 = 1.833 <2.0 r = (Db - Dp )/Db = (5.5 – 3.0)/5.5 = 45.45% < 50% t/Db = (3/32)/5.5 = 0.017 > 1% So the drawing operation is feasible.

Engineering Analysis of Drawing Drawing Force F = pDpt(TS)(Db/Dp – 0.7) Where F – drawing force, lb(N); t – thickness of blank, in. (mm); TS - tensile strength, ib/in2 (Mpa); Db and D p – starting blank diameter and punch diameter, in. (mm). 0.7 – a correction factor for friction. The equation is the estimation of the maximum force in the drawing. The drawing force varies throughout the downward movement of the punch, usually reaching its maximum value at about one-third the length of the punch stroke. Clearance c: about 10% than the stock thickness (t) c = 1.1 t

Engineering Analysis of Drawing Holding Force Fh = 0.015Yp[Db2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2] Where Fh – holding force in drawing, ib (N); Y – yield strength of the sheet metal, lb/in2 (Mpa); t – starting stock thickness, in. (mm); Rd – die conner radius, in. (mm). The holding force is usually about one-third the drawing force [1]. [1]: Wick, C., et al., “Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, 4th ed. Vol. II.

Engineering Analysis of Drawing Example Forces in Drawing Determine the (a) drawing force, and (2) holding force for the case in previous example for feasibility, where tensile strength of the metal = 70,000 lb/in 2 and yield strength = 40,000 lb/in 2 , the die corner radius = 0.25”. Solution: (a) F = pDpt(TS)(Db/Dp – 0.7) =p(3.0)(3/32)(70,000)(5.5/3.0 – 0.7) =70,097 lb (b) Fh = 0.015Yp[Db2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2] = 0.015(40,000)p{5.52 – [3.0 + 2.2(3/32) + 2(0.25)]2} = 1,885 (30.25 – 13.74) = 31,121 lb

Engineering Analysis of Drawing Blank Size Determination Assume that the volume of the final product is the same as the that of the starting sheet-metal blank and the thinning of the part wall is negligible. For a cup with its height H and the same diameters Dp in the bottom and top: pDb2/4 = pDp2/4 + pDp H, and Db = SQRT(Dp2 + 4Dp H)

Design Aids for Sheet Metal Forming Figure 17-57 (Left) Typical pattern for sheet metal deformation analysis; (right) forming limit diagram used to determine whether a metal can be shaped without risk of fracture. Fracture is expected when strains fall above the lines.

Design Aids for Sheet Metal Forming A pattern is placed on the surface of a sheet. Circles have diameters between 2.4 and 5 mm (0.1 – 0.2”). During deformation, the circles convert into ellipses. Regions where the enclosed area has expanded are locations of sheet thinning and possible failure. Regions where the area has contracted have undergone sheet thickening and may be sites of buckling or wrinkles.

Design Aids for Sheet Metal Forming Using the ellipses on the deformed pattern, the major strains (strain in the direction of the largest radius) and the associated minor strain (strain 900 from the major) can be determined for a variety of locations. If both major and minor strains are positive, the deformation are stretching, and the sheet metal will decrease in thickness. If the minor strain is negative, this contraction may partially or whole compensate any positive stretching in the major direction. The combination of tension and compression is known as drawing, and the thickness may decrease, increase, or stay the same, depending on relative magnitude of the two strains.

17.5 Alternative Methods of Producing Sheet-Type Products Electroforming Directly deposits metal onto preshaped forms or mandrels Nickel, iron, copper, or silver can used A wide variety of sizes and shapes can be made by electroforming Spray forming Spray deposition Uses powdered material in a plasma torch Molten metal may also be sprayed

17.6 Pipe Welding Lap-welded pipe Skelp has beveled edges and the rolls form the weld by forcing the lapped edges down against a supporting mandrel. The process is used primarily for large sizes of pipe, with diameters from about 50 mm (2”) to 400 mm (14”). Product length is limited to about 6 to 7 m (20 to 25 ft).

17.7 Presses Factor for selection of presses: type of power (mechanical, hydraulic), number of slides or drives, type of drive, stroke length for each drive, type of frame or construction, and the speed of operation.

17.7 Presses Figure 17-58 Schematic representation of the various types of press drive mechanisms.

Types of Press Frame

Types of Press Frame Figure 17-60 Inclinable gap-frame press with sliding bolster to accommodate two die sets for rapid change of tooling. (Courtesy of Niagara Machine & Tool Works, Buffalo, NY.)

Types of Press Frame Figure 17-61 A 200-ton (1800-kN) straight-sided press. (Courtesy of Rousselle Corporation, West Chicago, IL.)

Special Types of Presses Presses have been designed to perform specific types of operations Transfer presses have a long moving slide that enables multiple operations to be performed simultaneously in a single machine Four-slide or multislide machines are used to produce small, intricately shaped parts from continuously fed wire or coil strip

Figure 17-62 Schematic showing the arrangement of dies and the transfer mechanism used in transfer presses. (Courtesy of Verson Allsteel Press Company, Chicago, IL.)

Figure 17-63 Various operations can be performed during the production of stamped and drawn parts on a transfer press. (Courtesy of U.S. Baird Corporation, Stratford, CT.)

Figure 17-65 Schematic of the operating mechanism of a multislide machine. The material enters on the right and progresses toward the left as operations are performed. (Courtesy of U.S. Baird Corporation, Stratford, CT.)

Summary Sheet forming processes can be grouped in several broad categories Shearing Bending Drawing Forming Basic sheet forming operations involve a press, punch, or ram and a set of dies Material properties, geometry of the starting material, and the geometry of the desired final product play important roles in determining the best process