Looking Forward Chapter 12 Copyright 2001 Prentice Hall Revision 2: May 2001

Budgeting and Procurement Planning how to spend money Selecting and purchasing technologies and services

3 The Budget Realities Exploding demand but stagnant or slowly- growing budgets Must buy only what you really need in every system Time Demand Budget

4 Costs Total Purchase Costs Base price misleading due to absence of needed options Must cost out total purchase cost of fully configured system Initial Installation Cost The purchased product or service Labor needed to implement  Central staff labor  User labor, including training costs  Losses due to implementation disruptions

5 Costs Ongoing Costs over Life Span Often exceed initial costs  Labor  Upgrades Especially high in immature products  When possible, avoid the “bleeding edge”

6 The Timing of Costs and Benefits Discounting Money can be invested (I.e. opportunity cost)  If the investment rate is 20%, then  $1 invested today will bring $1.20 next year  So $1 received today is worth $1.20 received next year  Or, $1.20 received next year is worth $1 today  Or, $1 received next year is worth only $0.80 today

7 The Timing of Costs and Benefits When Costs and Benefits Come Over Time Hurdle rate: minimum rate of return expected by a corporation for investments  Often around 20% If the hurdle rate is i then  Money received or spent a year from now should be discounted (divided) by (1+i)  Money received or spent n years from now should be discounted (divided) by (1+i) n

8 The Timing of Costs and Benefits Discounted Cash Flow Example (i=20%) Net Present Value (NPV) = 3,639 (sum of annual present values) This YearNext YearYear After Cash Flow In2,0003,0004,000 Cash Flow Out1,0001,5002,000 Net Cash Flow1,0001,5002,000 Discount Ratio Present Value1,0001,2501,389

9 Procurement User Needs Must drive everything else Sometimes difficult to assess But the only way to drive evaluations of alternatives

10 Procurement Request for Proposals (RFP) Call for proposals to bid on the project Specifies what should be provided RFP will form the basis for resolving subsequent contract disputes  Must be very detailed  A legal document If something is left out, negotiating for it after the contract is signed will be done at the contractor’s advantage

11 Procurement Proposals Several companies are likely to submit proposals These proposals must be evaluated so that you can select the best one You must lay out your evaluation criteria in the RFP and follow them in selection, or you can be sued by a loser

12 Procurement Evaluating Proposals with Multicriteria Decision Making First, you must have specific criteria  For instance, price, performance, and reliability  Same criteria must be applied to each proposal Second, you must give a weight (importance) to each  Often of 5-point or 10-point scale  Same weights must be applied to each proposal

13 Procurement Evaluating Proposals with Multicriteria Decision Making Third, you must evaluate each proposal on each criteria  Perhaps on scale of 1 to 10 or some other scale  Score on each criterion will be different for each proposal

14 Procurement Evaluating Proposals with Multicriteria Decision Making Fourth, do the arithmetic for each proposal Highest total score should win Proposal AScoreWeightProduct Price10550 Performance6848 Reliability Total Score

15 Procurement Evaluating Proposals with Multicriteria Decision Making Example: a different proposal Same criteria & weights, different scores, total score Proposal BScoreWeightProduct Price8540 Performance7856 Reliability Total Score

16 Procurement Negotiating before contractor selection Often, negotiate with a few highly-rated proposers before selection for better terms Proposers present their Best and Final Offers Ongoing Monitoring Must monitor ongoing work to ensure compliance Renegotiating During Performance Sometimes must renegotiate during work; Bad because buyer is at a disadvantage in negotiations

17 Types of Servers Small Servers Usually are PCs Need a PC Server Operating System (SOS) such as Microsoft Windows Server, Novell NetWare, LINUX Large Servers Usually use Workstation Servers Usually run UNIX

18 Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) PC or workstation can have multiple microprocessors Work is shared among the microprocessors through symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) to increase overall speed However, if you have N microprocessors, your server is not N times faster than a single- microprocessor server because of problems in assigning work evenly

19 RAID Redundant Array of Inexpensive (or Independent) Drives RAID controller controls multiple small inexpensive disk drives Reads and writes in parallel for higher speed despite low-cost drives Information usually is stored redundantly If one disk fails, lose no information Drives may even be hot-swappable  Do not have to turn off computer to replace

20 Server Farms In large sites, one server is not enough Have several, even hundreds of servers Called a server farm Many PC servers may be more cost- effective than fewer workstation servers Server Farm

21 Server Farms Load Balancing Approach Router or other device sends requests to servers based on load

22 Server Farms Server Clustering Approach Act as a single server without an external load balancer

23 Server Farms Reliability If one server’s hardware fails, operation continues without interruption However, software failures often take down all servers simultaneously

24 Server Configuration When Server Operating System is Installed, it Must be Configured Complex task with many steps, many of which require you to have conceptual knowledge Requires training Valuable skill

25 Ongoing Work Server Systems Administration is Labor- Intensive on a Continuing Basis Assisting users Adding/dropping Users Assigning and changing rights for users Data backup Upgrading and repairing servers Adding & maintaining application programs …

26 Network Management System The Concept From a central computer, network administrator can manage entire network  Collect data  Give commands Moving gradually toward this ideal Data Command

27 Network Management System Standards Most widely used is the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Other standards exist SNMP

28 Network Management System The Manager Software on network administrator's computer Short for “network management software” Implements network management support Managed Nodes Routers, client PCs, etc. that are managed Manager Managed Node

29 Network Management System Agents Network management agents Installed in managed nodes Communicate with the manager on behalf of the node ManagerAgent Managed Node

30 Network Management System RMON Probes Remote MONitoring SNMP only Special type of agent Collects data on a LAN’s traffic: packet sizes, error rates, etc. Manager LAN RMON Probe

31 Network Management System Objects Managed nodes have several objects that are managed Example: Client PC, one object might be status of TCP connection to particular server another may be status of router port A managed node may have several “instances” of some objects; For instance, a router may have several ports Agent OBJ

32 Network Management System Management Information Base (MIB) Stores collected information Schema  The overall design  Entities (objects) and attributes  Object-oriented database The actual stored information Confusingly, “MIB” is used to refer both to the schema and the actual data MIB

33 Network Management System Management Information Base (MIB) Full MIB is stored on the central administration computer Relevant portion of the MIB is also stored by each Agent ManagerAgent MIB

34 Network Management Protocol Network management protocol standardizes Communication between manager and agent Defines the schema of the MIB Most popular is the Internet Engineering’s Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) There are others

35 Network Management Protocol SNMP Requests and Responses Manager sends requests  Get: give me data  Set: change your setting (e.g., turn off Port 1) Agent sends back responses  The information  Confirmation or reason for rejection ManagerAgent MIB Get or Set Request Response

36 Network Management Protocol SNMP Traps Sometimes, agent can send a message without a prior manager request Message is called a trap in SNMP For instance, if the agent senses a problem ManagerAgent MIB Trap

37 Directory Servers Information is Organized Hierarchically Hierarchy of objects X.500 Standard defines types of objects and their properties Organization (O) = xxx Organizational Unit (OU) = yyy Employee (E) = zzz Common Name (CN)=Pat Lee (EM)=Lee Digital Certificate (DC)= Password

38 Directory Servers LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol Most popular directory access protocol Governs user interaction with directory server Directory Server LDAP

39 Directory Server Products Novell Directory Services (NDS) From Novell Book incorrectly calls it NetWare Directory Services Mature, widely used Active Directory From Microsoft New

40 Directory Servers and Security Directory Server can store data and policies for security servers Digital certificates Passwords Policies Centralizes management and control

41 Converging Boxes Today, Many Types of Devices Forwarding: Hubs, Switches, Routers Security: Firewalls, etc. Difficult to Manage Difficult to Integrate Forwarding and Security

42 Converging Boxes Comprehensive Relay Devices are Needed Combine both forwarding and security Easier management Easier integration of forwarding, security CRD

43 Converging Boxes Multi-Layer Packet Analysis Comprehensive relay devices will analyze headers and data fields at all layers For intelligent forwarding, like Layer 4 switches For intelligent security, like firewalls This will reduce costs compared to having separate devices

44 Converging Boxes Processing Concerns Multi-layer forwarding will be processing intensive So will be multi-layer security Processors must grow in power to keep up with increasing demand plus multi-layer processing and security

45 Policy Based Networking Policy Servers will Store Policies and Related Data Will control individual forwarding, security, and comprehensive relay devices Uniformity in policy implementation CRD Policy Policy Server

46 Policy Based Networking COPS Common Open Policy Service Standardized way for policy servers to talk with devices for which they set policy CRD COPS Policy Server

47 Wireless Communication Site Wireless Networking For large site networks with many stations Bluetooth For a few devices close to one another Personal area networking May Interfere with Each Other if Both are Implemented

48 Wireless Communication Metropolitan Wireless Networking For an urban area Exists now, but slow (around 9,600 bps) Soon 100 kbps 3d Generation (3G) wireless service up to 2 Mbps Satellite Wireless Networking Megabit speeds anywhere

49 Wireless Communication Cellular Systems Service area is broken up into several small areas called cells Within each cell, there is a cellsite that transmits to and receives from cellular devices Cellsite

50 Wireless Communication Cellular Systems Channel reuse. Channels can be reused in non-adjacent cells  Very important due to limited available frequencies  Serves more subscriber with the same amount of frequency spectrum No Yes No Yes No Yes No Uses Channel 232 Can Reuse Ch. 232? Channel 232 Used in 4 cells

51 Wireless Communication The Wireless Revolution New freedom for users Anything, anytime, anywhere Likely to spawn new applications

52 Really Personal Computing Both Desktop PCs and Notebook PCs are Large This limits their portability Many Future Access Devices Will be Smaller Personal digital assistants (PDAs) Cellphones

53 Cellphone Access Cellphones will be Very Popular for Internet Access Cellphones are very widespread  In Japan, the number of cellphones passed the number of wired phones in early 2000  This is happening in other countries as well  The U.S. is somewhat behind because it did not settle on the world cellphone standard, GSM

54 Cellphone Access Starting to have small displays capable of showing a few lines of data Good for short messages (Short Message Service or SMS) Good for restricted Internet access Text only A few short lines only

55 Cellphone Access Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) Emerging standard for cellphone web access Also for other small devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) Competition from i-mode technology created and popularized in Japan

56 Cellphone Access Wireless Markup Language (WML) Part of WAP Way of formatting webpages for small displays Simpler than HTML Reformatting may be expensive

57 Cellphone Access Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) Device will communicate over the Internet with WAP server via WAP protocols rather than with webservers directly Wireless Carrier WAP Protocols WAP Protocols WAP Server

58 Cellphone Access Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) WAP server may get content from full webserver using full webservice protocols (HTTP, TCP), probably translating webpages to WML Wireless Carrier WAP Server Webservice Protocols Full Webserver

59 Network Object-Oriented Processing Traditional Object-Oriented Programming Programs consist of many objects (forms, buttons, etc.) Objects send messages to one another to ask others to do certain tasks by executing methods OBJ Message Application

60 Network Object-Oriented Processing Network Object-Oriented Programming (NOOP) Objects can run on multiple machines Still communicate by sending messages NOOP takes advantage of available capacity on computers on the network If computer has idle capacity, it will be sent objects OBJ Message

61 Network Object-Oriented Processing NOOP Standards are Needed for Object- Object Communication Microsoft’s standard is DCOM CORBA is a competing consortium standard OBJ

62 The Changing Internet Today’s Internet Speed too low Delays (Latencies) are too long Reliability is too slow Need a “Business Class Internet” Faster Lower Latency High reliability Two Classes of Service? Regular versus Business Class? Haves versus Have-Nots?

63 The Next Big Thing The PC Revolution of the 1980s was not anticipated The Internet Revolution of the 1990s was not anticipated Will the future simply be an extension of the past, or will there be a Next Big Thing?