THE GERMAN REVOLUTION AND FOUNDING OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC October 1, 1918: Kaiser appoints Prince Max of Baden to head a “parliamentary” cabinet. October 28, 1918: Naval mutiny begins at Kiel after the Navy command orders an unauthorized offensive. November 9, 1918: Scheidemann (SPD) proclaims a Republic in Berlin, and the Kaiser flees to Holland. December 20, 1918: Friedrich Ebert secures approval by the Congress of Workers’ & Soldiers’ Councils for the speedy election of a National Assembly. January 5-15, 1919: Spartacist uprising in Berlin leads to the murder of Luxemburg & Liebknecht by the Free Corps. February 6, 1919: National Assembly convenes in Weimar.

In early November 1918, Prince Max of Baden appealed to Friedrich Ebert of the SPD to become Chancellor, prevent a Communist revolution, and safeguard national unity. Prince Max of Baden. SOURCE: http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/graphics/hw_max_baden_01.jpg 2

Gustav Noske (SPD) addresses revolutionary sailors in Kiel, November 5, 1918 The Social Democrat Gustav Noske addresses German naval mutineers in Kiel, 5 November 1918. Most of these sailors are from the submarine crews, which were more willing to continue fighting than the long idle crews of the surface navy. Noske's largely successful efforts to promote consensus among the sailors in favor of revolution but without any “excesses” earned him appointment as the first minister of war of the Weimar Republic. His later collaboration with the leaders of the Free Corps earned him the bitter nickname, “The Bloodhound,” among German Communists. From Keegan, ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR, p. 391.

Philipp Scheidemann proclaims Germany a Republic from the balcony of the Reichstag on November 9, 1918 Ausrufung der Republik vor dem Reichstagsgebäude durch Philipp Scheidemann Photographie Berlin, 9. November 1918 DHM, Berlin (www.dhm.de/lemo)

Revolutionary soldiers and sailors occupy the royal palace in downtown Berlin, November 10, 1918 Revolutionary troops with an armored car take control of the courtyard of the Royal Palace in downtown Berlin, 10 November 1918. About 1,000 troops who supported the new "Council of People's Commissars" occupied the palace after the proclamation of the Republic and drove "counter-revolutionary" army officers and army cadets out of neighboring buildings in the heart of Berlin. From Dieter Vorsteher and Maike Steinkamp, eds, THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: PHOTOGRAPHS OF GERMAN HISTORY FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE GERMAN HISTORICAL MUSEUM (Heidelberg: Wachter Verlag, 2004), p. 77. 5

Ebert formed a new “Council of People’s Commissars” in alliance with the USPD Rat der Volksbeauftragten, postcard, Berlin, November 1918 Disappointment and the desire for political change lead to a revolutionary movement even before the signing of the peace agreement. On November 9, 1918, Prince Max von Baden announced the abdication of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II. and put the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert in charge of government affairs. Considering the revolutionary situation, the "Rat der Volksbeauftragten" (Council of People's Delegates) constituted itself the following day as a caretaker government. It consisted of three members of both the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) respectively. SOURCE: http://www.dhm.de/ENGLISH/sammlungen/dokumente2/89204618.html

TWO HISTORIC BARGAINS IN NOVEMBER 1918 PROMOTED ALLIANCE BETWEEM SOCIAL & LIBERAL DEMOCRATS THE EBERT-GROENER PACT, November 10, 1918: Wilhelm Groener, chief of staff of the Imperial Army, telephoned Friedrich Ebert from Kassel to pledge the support of the officer corps, in exchange for Ebert’s promise “to take up the struggle against radicalism and Bolshevism.” 2. THE STINNES-LEGIEN AGREEMENT, Nov. 15, 1918: Hugo Stinnes and the captains of industry agreed to implement the 8-hour day and collective bargaining in exchange for a pledge by trade union leaders to oppose any factory occupations.

Homeless veterans in a Heimkehrerlager, 1919 Combat veterans return to an uncertain welcome in Berlin, November 1918 German soldiers return from the Western Front to Berlin in November 1918, to an uncertain welcome. SOURCE: John Keegan, _An Illustrated History of the First World War_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), p. 403. German war veterans without a home or job to which to return in a "Heimkehrerlager" in 1919/20. From Dieter Vorsteher and Maike Steinkamp, eds, THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: PHOTOGRAPHS OF GERMAN HISTORY FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE GERMAN HISTORICAL MUSEUM (Heidelberg: Wachter Verlag, 2004), p. 99. Homeless veterans in a Heimkehrerlager, 1919

The “Workers’ and Soldiers’ Council” of Guben, November 1918 The “Workers’ and Soldiers’ Council” of Guben, November 1918. In Germany most of these “soviets” regarded themselves as temporary bodies. Der Arbeiter- und Soldatenrat von Guben, November 1918 (Foto) www.preussen-chronik.de

Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg founded the German Communist Party in December 1918, with the slogan, “All power to the soviets.” Karl Liebknecht's last public speech (Siegesallee, Berlin, January 1919), and photograph of Rosa Luxemburg, both from the German Historical Museum in Berlin. SOURCE: http://www.dhm.de/lemo

The National Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers Councils, Berlin, December 16-21, 1918. Ebert persuaded 75% of the delegates to endorse his program for the election of a National Assembly. Reichskongreß der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte. Blick in den Sitzungssaal Photographie Berlin, 16.-21. Dezember 1918 DHM, Berlin; www.dhm.de/lemo

Communist insurgents in the newspaper district of Berlin, January 1919 Spartacist troops take up positions in the newspaper district of Berlin, January 1919, shortly before their defeat by the Free Corps. SOURCE: Lothar Gall, Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte. Historische Ausstellung im Treichstagsgebäude in Berlin, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1974, picture #170.

A Free Corps unit sworn to crush the Reds They killed Luxemburg and Liebknecht on January 15, 1919 The death’s head expresses the freebooters’ mentality of Free Corps soldiers, many of whom were more loyal to their individual commander than to country or a political cause. SOURCE: Susanne Everett, Lost Berlin (New York: Gallery Books, 1979), p. 31. Some Free Corps soldiers used the swastika as a symbol of Aryan racial purity; many later joined the Nazis

Käthe Kollwitz, “Memorial to January 15, 1919”

League for Combating Bolshevism: “BOLSHEVISM BRINGS WAR, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND HUNGER,” January 1919 Julius Ussy Engelhard, "BOLSHEVISM BRINGS WAR, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND HUNGER" (poster for the League for Combatting Bolshevism, January 1919). The Anti-Bolshevik League was founded by intellectuals and combat veterans and received massive funding from German big business. SOURCE: Peter Paret, Beth Irwin Lewis, & Paul Paret, Persuasive Images: Posters of War and Revolution from the Hoover Institution Archives, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 124.

George Grosz, “Ebert” (ink drawing, 1934) Georg Grosz, "Ebert" (ink drawing, 1934), Busch-Reisinger Museum, Harvard University. A wicked caricature of the first President of the Weimar Republic, who still keeps a portrait of Karl Kautsky on his wall but has obviously been seduced by fine living. From Peter Gay, _Weimar Culture_ (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 15.

“Workers, burghers, farmers, soldiers of every German tribe: Unite in the National Assembly!” Cesar Klein, "Workers, Burghers, Farmers, Soldiers of All German Tribes: Unite in the National Assembly," lithograph produced for the governmental "Werbedienst der Deutschen Republik," December 1918. No other poster expressed so well the yearning for unity, at least among the male population, as German men from all classes and tribes pledge their loyalty to the new German Republic before the rising sun. The committee that issued this placard represented all the parties of the Weimar Coalition. The archaic costumes and raised arms evoke the memory of David's "Oath of the Horatii," from 1784, and the "Oath of the Tennis Court," from 1791. SOURCE: Frederich Grunfeld, The Hitler File: A Social History of Germany and the Nazis, 1918-1945, New York: Random House, 1973, p. 39.

“An Appeal for Socialism” SPD CAMPAIGN SLOGANS Max Pechstein, “An Appeal for Socialism” “Women! Equal Rights, Equal Duties. Vote Social Democratic!” SPD poster by Max Pechstein, 1919. Source: Grunfeld, THE HITLER FILE, p. 40. Gottfried Kirchbach, "Women! Equal Rights--Equal Duties: Vote Social Democratic!" This poster was published in Berlin for the election to the National Assembly in January 1919 and illustrates the SPD's initial assumption that it could win women's votes simply by emphasizing the fact that it had been the first political party to support equal rights for women. From POLITISCHE PLAKATE, p. 117.

“Building Blocks of the German Democratic Party” (DDP): “Humane housing conditions” “Equal rights for all” “Stronger protection for individual freedom” “Caring for war invalids” “A free Church in a free State” [i.e., separation of church and state] “Access to higher education for the most talented” “League of Nations” Die Bausteine der Deutschen Demokratischen Partei Wahlplakat der DDP zur Wahl der Weimarer Nationalversammlung Entwurf: F. Witte Druck: A. Bargel Düsseldorf, 1919 Lithographie 109,2 x 75 cm DHM, Berlin (www.dhm.de/lemo)

The Center Party proved most attractive to women voters in 1919 and was the only party to include a cross section of all social classes "Women and men, if you want to assure the happiness of your family and children, then vote only for the Christian People's Party (Center)," campaign poster, 1920. From PERSUASIVE IMAGES, p. 125. Hans Herkendell, "Farmers, Artisans, Merchants, Civil Servants, Workers, Industrialists, Artists and Scholars: Only the Center Party Unites All Occupational Groups and Is therefore the True People's Party," election poster, ca. 1920. Here the artist has discovered a vivid image to explain the significance of the party name; the Center is the axis to promote harmony among the social classes. Source: POLITISCHE PLAKATE, p. 57.

“CHRISTIAN PEOPLE! SHOULD SPARTACUS BE ALLOWED TO TEAR DOWN YOUR CHURCES? GIVE YOUR ANSWER ON ELECTION DAY! BAVARIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY” (Bavarian Catholics formed their own party, because the Center allied with the SPD) "Christians! Will Spartacus be allowed to tear down your churches? Give the answer on election day! Bavarian People's Party" (Hermann Keimel, Germany, 1919). Against the background of the old colors of the Bavarian monarchy, a gigantic Roman gladiator topples the towers of the Church of Our Lady in Munich; the traditional academic draftsmanship implies aesthetic as well as political rejection of the new forces of socialism and Expressionism. Source: PERSUASIVE IMAGES, p. 106.

The “National Liberal” DVP: “War Veterans The “National Liberal” DVP: “War Veterans! Have you spilled your blood so that conditions here would resemble a madhouse? Should today’s terrorism be allowed to destroy everything? Or do you want orderly conditions, as we do?” "War Veterans! Have you spilled your blood so that conditions here would resemble a madhouse? Should today's terrorism be allowed to destroy everything? Or do you want orderly conditions, as we do? Then vote for the German People's Party!" DVP campaign poster, January 1919, designed by Wilhelm Fahrig and produced in Goslar. DHM Berlin (www.dhm.de/lemo)

“Who will save Prussia from destruction “Who will save Prussia from destruction?” (German Nationalist People’s Party, or DNVP) "Who will save Prussia from destruction? The German Nationalist People's Party!" This DNVP campaign poster from January 1919, designed by van Hees, shows the chariot of state being driven by Death (or the Revolution) straight into the swamp of Communism. In the German Historical Museum, Berlin (www.dhm.de/lemo)

In February 1919 the National Assembly convened in the Weimar National Theater, beside Goethe & Schiller Zur kommenden Nationalversammlung in Weimar Photographie des Nationaltheaters, in dem die Nationalversammlung tagte Weimar, Januar 1919 DHM, Berlin (www.dhm.de/lemo)

The first women elected to a German parliament (Weimar, 1919) Germany's first women in parliament, at the National Assembly in Weimar, February 1919. From FRAGEN AN DIE DEUTSCHE GESCHICHTE, #174.

Munich experienced Communist rule for six weeks in April-May 1919 after the assassination of Kurt Eisner by a royalist officer A Bavarian Heimwehr militia unit that helped to suppress the Munich Soviet Republic Armed members of Munich's "KPD, Section Neuhausen" march during a parade by the "Red Army" under the rule of the "Soviet Republic," 22 April 1919. SOURCE: Ian Kershaw, _Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris_ (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), plate #9. Armed members of a right-wing "Home Guard" unite march through Munich in 1919. Tensions in Bavaria erupted into bloody conflict after the leadership of the Independent Social Democratic Party proclaimed a "Soviet Republic" in Munich on April 7, 1919. SOURCE: [Bildersammlung: Kriege, Krisen & Konflikte. The Yorck Project: Das große dpa-Bildarchiv, S. 71 (c) 2005 The Yorck Project]

The impact of the Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) SOURCE: Martin Kitchen, The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany, (Cambridge, 1996), p. 234.