Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle

What you need to know… The structure of the replicated chromosome. The stages of mitosis. The role of kinases and cyclin in the regulation of the cell cycle. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes living things from nonliving matter The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 12-1

In unicellular organisms, division of one cell reproduces the entire organism Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for: – Development from a fertilized cell – Growth – Repair Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its own division Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Cell Cycle

Fig µm200 µm 20 µm (a) Reproduction (b) Growth and development (c) Tissue renewal

Concept 12.1: Cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells Most cell division results in daughter cells with identical genetic information, DNA A special type of division (meiosis) produces nonidentical daughter cells (gametes, or sperm and egg cells) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome – genome can consist of a single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells) DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig µm

Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have two sets of chromosomes Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate during cell division The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig µmChromosomes Chromosome duplication (including DNA synthesis) Chromo- some arm Centromere Sister chromatids DNA molecules Separation of sister chromatids Centromere Sister chromatids

Eukaryotic cell division consists of: – Mitosis, the division of the nucleus – Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Concept 12.2: The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle The cell cycle consists of – Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) – Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases: – G 1 phase (“first gap”) – S phase (“synthesis”) – G 2 phase (“second gap”) The cell grows during all three phases, but chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig S (DNA synthesis) MITOTIC (M) PHASE Mitosis Cytokinesis G1G1 G2G2

Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases: – Prophase – Prometaphase – Metaphase – Anaphase – Telophase Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase BioFlix: Mitosis BioFlix: Mitosis Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

– Prophase Chromatin becomes more tightly coiled into discrete chromosomes. Nucleoli disappear. Mitotic spindle (consisting of microtubules extending from the 2 centrosomes) begin to form in cytoplasm. – Prometaphase Nuclear envelope beings to fragment, allowing microtubules to attach to chromosomes. 2 chromatids of each chromosome are held together by protein kinetochores in centromere region. Microtubules will attach to kinetochores. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Phases of Mitosis

– Metaphase Microtubules move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate at the equator of the cell. Microtubule complex is referred to as the spindle. Centrioles have migrated to opposite poles in the cell, riding along the developing spindle. – Anaphase Sister chromatids begin in separate, pulled apart by motor molecules interacting with kinetochore microtubules. The cell elongates, as the nonkinetochore microtubules ratchet apart, again with the help of motor molecules. By the end of anaphase, the opposite ends of both cell contain complete and equal sets of chromosomes. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Phases of Mitosis

– Telophase The nuclear envelopes re-form around the sets of chromosomes located at opposite ends of the cell. The chromatin fiber of the chromosomes becomes less condensed. Cytokinesis begins, during which the cytoplasm of the cell is divided. In animal cells a cleavage furrow forms that eventually divides the cytoplasm; in plant cells, a cell plate forms that divides the cytoplasm. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Phases of Mitosis

Fig G 2 of Interphase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Chromatin (duplicated) Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Early mitotic spindle Aster Centromere Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids Prophase Prometaphase Fragments of nuclear envelope Nonkinetochore microtubules Kinetochore microtubule Metaphase plate Spindle Centrosome at one spindle pole Anaphase Daughter chromosomes Telophase and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Nucleolus forming Nuclear envelope forming Phases of Mitosis

The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis During prophase, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center The centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from them Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Microtubules Chromosomes Sister chromatids Aster Metaphase plate Centrosome Kineto- chores Kinetochore microtubules Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules Centrosome 1 µm 0.5 µm

Cytokinesis: A Closer Look In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis Animation: Cytokinesis Animation: Cytokinesis Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Video: Sea Urchin (Time Lapse) Video: Sea Urchin (Time Lapse) Video: Animal Mitosis Video: Animal Mitosis Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Cleavage furrow 100 µm Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM) Vesicles forming cell plate Wall of parent cell Cell plate Daughter cells New cell wall 1 µm

Fig Chromatin condensing Metaphase AnaphaseTelophase Prometaphase Nucleus Prophase Nucleolus Chromosomes Cell plate 10 µm

Binary Fission Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Origin of replication Two copies of origin E. coli cell Bacterial chromosome Plasma membrane Cell wall

Fig Origin of replication Two copies of origin E. coli cell Bacterial chromosome Plasma membrane Cell wall Origin

Fig Origin of replication Two copies of origin E. coli cell Bacterial chromosome Plasma membrane Cell wall Origin

Fig Origin of replication Two copies of origin E. coli cell Bacterial chromosome Plasma membrane Cell wall Origin

Concept 12.3: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell These cell cycle differences result from regulation at the molecular level Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Cell Cycle Control System The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock The cell cycle control system is regulated by both internal and external controls The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig S G1G1 M checkpoint G2G2 M Control system G 1 checkpoint G 2 checkpoint

For many cells, the G 1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G 2, and M phases and divide If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the G 0 phase Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig G1G1 G0G0 G 1 checkpoint (a)Cell receives a go-ahead signal G1G1 (b) Cell does not receive a go-ahead signal

The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle control: cyclins and cyclin- dependent kinases (Cdks) The activity of cyclins and Cdks fluctuates during the cell cycle MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin- Cdk complex that triggers a cell’s passage past the G 2 checkpoint into the M phase Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig M G1G1 S G2G2 M G1G1 SG2G2 M G1G1 MPF activity Cyclin concentration Time (a) Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclin concentration during the cell cycle Degraded cyclin Cdk G1G1 S G2G2 M G2G2 checkpoint Cyclin is degraded Cyclin MPF (b) Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle Cyclin accumulation

Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Another example of external signals is density- dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum, like the extracellular matrix of a tissue, in order to divide Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Anchorage dependence Density-dependent inhibition (a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells 25 µm

Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms Cancer cells may not need growth factors to grow and divide: – They may make their own growth factor – They may convey a growth factor’s signal without the presence of the growth factor – They may have an abnormal cell cycle control system Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Tumor A tumor grows from a single cancer cell. Glandular tissue Lymph vessel Blood vessel Metastatic tumor Cancer cell Cancer cells invade neigh- boring tissue. Cancer cells spread to other parts of the body. Cancer cells may survive and establish a new tumor in another part of the body

Fig. 12-UN1 Telophase and Cytokinesis Anaphase Metaphase Prometaphase Prophase MITOTIC (M) PHASE Cytokinesis Mitosis S G1G1 G2G2

Fig. 12-UN3

Fig. 12-UN4

Fig. 12-UN5

You should now be able to: 1.Describe the structural organization of the prokaryotic genome and the eukaryotic genome 2.List the phases of the cell cycle; describe the sequence of events during each phase 3.List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase 4.Draw or describe the mitotic spindle, including centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, and asters Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

5.Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants 6.Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and explain how eukaryotic mitosis may have evolved from binary fission 7.Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle controls 8.Distinguish between benign, malignant, and metastatic tumors Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings