2. Polar Covalent Bonds: Acids and Bases Why this chapter? Description of basic ways chemists account for chemical reactivity. Establish foundation for understanding specific reactions discussed in subsequent chapters.

2.1 Polar Covalent Bonds: Electronegativity Covalent bonds can have ionic character These are polar covalent bonds Bonding electrons attracted more strongly by one atom than by the other Electron distribution between atoms is not symmetrical

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity Electronegativity (EN): intrinsic ability of an atom to attract the shared electrons in a covalent bond Differences in EN produce bond polarity Arbitrary scale. As shown in Figure 2.2, electronegativities are based on an arbitrary scale F is most electronegative (EN = 4.0), Cs is least (EN = 0.7) Metals on left side of periodic table attract electrons weakly, lower EN Halogens and other reactive nonmetals on right side of periodic table attract electrons strongly, higher electronegativities EN of C = 2.5

The Periodic Table and Electronegativity

Bond Polarity and Inductive Effect Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: atoms with similar EN Polar Covalent Bonds: Difference in EN of atoms < 2 Ionic Bonds: Difference in EN > 2 C–H bonds, relatively nonpolar C-O, C-X bonds (more electronegative elements) are polar Bonding electrons toward electronegative atom C acquires partial positive charge, + Electronegative atom acquires partial negative charge, - Inductive effect: shifting of electrons in a bond in response to EN of nearby atoms

O=C=O Polarity, Shape O C O d- d+ d- CO2 Electronegativity Difference < 0.5 Nonpolar 0.5-1.7 Polar >1.8 Ionic O C O 3.5 2.5 3.5 O=C=O d- d+ d- Polar Covalent Bonds Linear Shape (180o) Nonpolar Compound

Some common geometries e- directions around Shape central atom Example___ Linear 2 O=C=O Trigonal Planar 3 Tetrahedral 4

O=C=O Polarity, Shape Linear d- d+ d- Nonpolar Compound d- e-’s in 2 directions = 180o O=C=O Linear d- d+ d- Nonpolar Compound e-’s in 3 directions = 120o d- Trigonal planar Polar Compound d+

Polarity, Shape F B F F F B d- d+ d- d- BF3 (120o) 4.0 d+ F 2.0 d- d- F F B 4.0 4.0 (120o) Trigonal Planar Polar Covalent Bonds Nonpolar Compound

Polarity, Shape C H Cl C H Cl d+ d- (109.5o) 2.1 2.5 2.1 3.0 2.1 Tetrahedral

Polarity, Shape O H H-O-H d+ d- d+ Bent Configuration of Atoms 2.1 3.5 d- d+ H-O-H 2.1 (109.5o) Tetrahedral Configuration of Electrons Bent Configuration of Atoms

Polarity, Shape C H Cl C H Cl O H H-O-H d+ d- Tetrahedral d+ d- d+ e-’s in 4 directions = 109.5o C H Cl C H Cl d+ d- Tetrahedral d+ 4 directions = 109.5o O H d- d+ H-O-H Bent

Polarity, Shape N H N H d- d+ d+ d+ Pyramidal e-’s in 4 directions = 109.5o d- N H N H d+ d+ d+ Pyramidal (109.5o) Tetrahedral Configuration of Electrons Trigonal Pyramid Configuration of Atoms

Tetrahedral electron-pair Geometries Pyramidal Bent

Electrostatic Potential Maps Electrostatic potential maps show calculated charge distributions Colors indicate electron- rich (red) and electron- poor (blue) regions Arrows indicate direction of bond polarity

2.2 Polar Covalent Bonds: Dipole Moments Molecules as a whole are often polar from vector summation of individual bond polarities and lone-pair contributions Strongly polar substances soluble in polar solvents like water; nonpolar substances are insoluble in water. Dipole moment () - Net molecular polarity, due to difference in summed charges  - magnitude of charge Q at end of molecular dipole times distance r between charges  = Q  r, in debyes (D), 1 D = 3.336  1030 coulomb meter length of an average covalent bond, the dipole moment would be 1.60  1029 Cm, or 4.80 D.

Dipole Moments in Water and Ammonia Large dipole moments EN of O and N > H Both O and N have lone-pair electrons oriented away from all nuclei

Absence of Dipole Moments In symmetrical molecules, the dipole moments of each bond has one in the opposite direction The effects of the local dipoles cancel each other

Which of the above molecules is the most polar? Learning Check: Which of the above molecules is the most polar? A B C D It cannot be determined

Which of the above molecules is the most polar? Solution: Which of the above molecules is the most polar? A B C D It cannot be determined

Learning Check: H2O CH3CN CHCl3 CH2Cl2 CO2 Which of the following molecules is nonpolar? H2O CH3CN CHCl3 CH2Cl2 CO2

Solution: H2O CH3CN CHCl3 CH2Cl2 CO2 Which of the following molecules is nonpolar? H2O CH3CN CHCl3 CH2Cl2 CO2

Which of the above molecules has (have) a dipole moment? Learning Check: Which of the above molecules has (have) a dipole moment? A only B only C only A and B B and C

Which of the above molecules has (have) a dipole moment? Solution: Which of the above molecules has (have) a dipole moment? A only B only C only A and B B and C

2.3 Formal Charges Sometimes it is necessary to have structures with formal charges on individual atoms We compare the bonding of the atom in the molecule to the valence electron structure If the atom has one more electron in the molecule, it is shown with a “- ” charge If the atom has one less electron, it is shown with a “+” charge Neutral molecules with both a “+” and a “-” are dipolar

Formal Charge for Dimethyl Sulfoxide • Atomic sulfur has 6 valence electrons. Dimethyl suloxide sulfur has only 5. • It has lost an electron and has positive charge. • Oxygen atom in DMSO has gained electron and has (-) charge.

Learning Check: What are the hybridization and a formal charge, respectively, on boron in BH4–? sp3, 0 sp3, –1 sp3, +1 sp2, –1 sp2, +1

Solution: What are the hybridization and a formal charge, respectively, on boron in BH4–? sp3, 0 sp3, –1 sp3, +1 sp2, –1 sp2, +1

2.4 Resonance Some molecules are have structures that cannot be shown with a single representation In these cases we draw structures that contribute to the final structure but which differ in the position of the  bond(s) or lone pair(s) Such a structure is delocalized and is represented by resonance forms The resonance forms are connected by a double-headed arrow

Resonance Hybrids A structure with resonance forms does not alternate between the forms Instead, it is a hybrid of the two resonance forms, so the structure is called a resonance hybrid For example, benzene (C6H6) has two resonance forms with alternating double and single bonds In the resonance hybrid, the actual structure, all its C-C bonds are equivalent, midway between double and single

2.5 Rules for Resonance Forms Individual resonance forms are imaginary - the real structure is a hybrid (only by knowing the contributors can you visualize the actual structure) Resonance forms differ only in the placement of their  or nonbonding electrons Different resonance forms of a substance don’t have to be equivalent Resonance forms must be valid Lewis structures: the octet rule applies The resonance hybrid is more stable than any individual resonance form would be

Curved Arrows and Resonance Forms We can imagine that electrons move in pairs to convert from one resonance form to another A curved arrow shows that a pair of electrons moves from the atom or bond at the tail of the arrow to the atom or bond at the head of the arrow

2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms Any three-atom grouping with a multiple bond has two resonance forms

Different Atoms in Resonance Forms Sometimes resonance forms involve different atom types as well as locations The resulting resonance hybrid has properties associated with both types of contributors The types may contribute unequally The “enolate” derived from acetone is a good illustration, with delocalization between carbon and oxygen

2,4-Pentanedione The anion derived from 2,4-pentanedione Lone pair of electrons and a formal negative charge on the central carbon atom, next to a C=O bond on the left and on the right Three resonance structures result

Learning Check: Which of the following statements is false concerning resonance structures? The arrangement of nuclei in all contributing structures must be the same. The arrangement of electrons in each contributing structure is different. Each atom in a contributing structure must have a completed valence shell. The contributing structures may have different energies. All contributing structures must have the correct number of valence electrons.

Solution: Which of the following statements is false concerning resonance structures? The arrangement of nuclei in all contributing structures must be the same. The arrangement of electrons in each contributing structure is different. Each atom in a contributing structure must have a completed valence shell. The contributing structures may have different energies. All contributing structures must have the correct number of valence electrons.

Learning Check: Consider all equivalent resonance structures for the carbonate anion shown below. If the bond order is defined as the number of electron pairs shared between two atoms, what is the average bond order for the C-O1 bond? 2 3/2 4/3 1 1/4

Solution: Consider all equivalent resonance structures for the carbonate anion shown below. If the bond order is defined as the number of electron pairs shared between two atoms, what is the average bond order for the C-O1 bond? 2 3/2 4/3 1 1/4

Learning Check: Consider all equivalent resonance structures for carbonate anion shown below. What is the formal charge on O1? –1 –2/3 –1/2 –1/3

Solution: Consider all equivalent resonance structures for carbonate anion shown below. What is the formal charge on O1? –1 –2/3 –1/2 –1/3

Learning Check: sp3 sp2 sp sp3d carbon 1 is not hybridized Anions with the negative charge residing on carbons are called carbanions. In the methyl anion the carbon is sp3 hybridized. What is the hybridization of carbon 1 in the allyl anion? sp3 sp2 sp sp3d carbon 1 is not hybridized

Solution: sp3 sp2 sp sp3d carbon 1 is not hybridized Anions with the negative charge residing on carbons are called carbanions. In the methyl anion the carbon is sp3 hybridized. What is the hybridization of carbon 1 in the allyl anion? sp3 sp2 sp sp3d carbon 1 is not hybridized

Learning Check: How many uncharged resonance structures exist for the following molecule? Only the one shown above 2 3 4 5

Solution: How many uncharged resonance structures exist for the following molecule? Only the one shown above 2 3 4 5

2.7 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition The terms “acid” and “base” can have different meanings in different contexts For that reason, we specify the usage with more complete terminology The idea that acids are solutions containing a lot of “H+” and bases are solutions containing a lot of “OH-” is not very useful in organic chemistry Instead, Brønsted–Lowry theory defines acids and bases by their role in reactions that transfer protons (H+) between donors and acceptors

Bronsted-Lowry theory Acid = a Proton donor donates a proton, H+, to solvent Example: HCl HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl- hydronium ion

Bronsted-Lowry theory Example: HNO3 HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3- HNO3 is the acid: it donates the proton.

Bronsted-Lowry theory Base = a proton acceptor accepts a Proton, H+, from solvent NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH- Accepted H+ NH3 is the Base: it takes the proton. Hydroxide ions (OH-) form when water donates the proton.

Common Acids H2SO4 HCl H3PO4 H2CO3 HC2H3O2 H3C6O7H8 HC6O6H7 H2C4O6H4 Battery Acid Stomach Acid Coca Cola Carbonated Water Vinegar Citrus fruits Vitamin C Grapes Aspirin Sulfuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid Phosphoric Acid Carbonic Acid Acetic Acid Citric Acid Ascorbic Acid Tartaric Acid Acetyl Salicylic Acid

Naming Acids Binary Acids = (-ide ending) Hydro- ______-ic Acid HCl = Hydrogen Chloride = Hydrochloric Acid Oxoacids = H, Nonmetal & O -ate ending (The higher number of O’s) ______________-ic Acid HNO3 = Hydrogen Nitrate = Nitric Acid -ite ending (The lower number of O’s) ______________-ous Acid HNO2 = Hydrogen Nitrite = Nitrous Acid

Naming Acids H2SO4 H2SO3 H2S H3PO4 HBr H2CO3 HNO2 HNO3 HC2H3O2 Non-Acid name Acid Name H2SO4 H2SO3 H2S H3PO4 HBr H2CO3 HNO2 HNO3 Dihydrogen Sulfate Sulfuric Acid Dihydrogen Sulfite Sulfurous Acid Dihydrogen Sulfide Hydrosulfuric Acid Trihydrogen Phosphate Phosphoric Acid Hydrogen Bromide Hydrobromic Acid Dihydrogen carbonate Carbonic Acid Hydrogen Nitrite Nitrous Acid Hydrogen Nitrate Nitric Acid HC2H3O2 Hydrogen Acetate Acetic Acid

Naming Acids H2SO4 H2SO3 H2SO2 HCl HClO HClO2 HClO3 HClO4 Non-Acid name Acid Name H2SO4 H2SO3 H2SO2 HCl HClO HClO2 HClO3 Dihydrogen Sulfate Sulfuric Acid Dihydrogen Sulfite Sulfurous Acid Dihydrogen Sulfide Hyposulfurous Acid Hydrogen Chloride Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen hypochlorite Hypochlorous Acid Hydrogen chlorite Chlorous Acid Hydrogen chlorate Chloric Acid HClO4 Hydrogen Perchlorate Perchloric Acid

Common Acids Strong Weak H2SO4 Battery Acid HCl Stomach Acid H3PO4 H2CO3 HC2H3O2 H3C6O7H8 HC6O6H7 H2C4O6H4 H2C9O4H8 Battery Acid Stomach Acid Coca Cola Carbonated Water Vinegar Citrus fruits Vitamin C Grapes Aspirin Strong 100% ionization Strong electrolyte Weak Partial ionization Weak electrolyte Taste sour

Acids H-Cl + H-O-H + Cl- H-C2H3O2 + H-O-H + C2H3O2- H-Cl HC2H3O2 Cl-

Bases Base = gives hydroxide ions in water. (Arrhenius definition) = takes hydrogen ions in water. (Bronsted-Lowry definition) OH- Na+ NaOH NaOH Na+ + OH-

Brønsted Acids and Bases “Brønsted-Lowry” is usually shortened to “Brønsted” A Brønsted acid is a substance that donates a hydrogen ion (H+) A Brønsted base is a substance that accepts the H+ “proton” is a synonym for H+ - loss of an electron from H leaving the bare nucleus—a proton

The Reaction of Acid with Base Hydronium ion, product when base H2O gains a proton HCl donates a proton to water molecule, yielding hydronium ion (H3O+) [conjugate acid] and Cl [conjugate base] The reverse is also a Brønsted acid–base reaction of the conjugate acid and conjugate base

2.8 Acid and Base Strength The equilibrium constant (Keq) for the reaction of an acid (HA) with water to form hydronium ion and the conjugate base (A-) is a measure related to the strength of the acid Stronger acids have larger Keq Note that brackets [ ] indicate concentration, moles per liter, M.

Ka – the Acidity Constant The concentration of water as a solvent does not change significantly when it is protonated The molecular weight of H2O is 18 and one liter weighs 1000 grams, so the concentration is ~ 55.4 M at 25° The acidity constant, Ka for HA Keq times 55.6 M (leaving [water] out of the expression) Ka ranges from 1015 for the strongest acids to very small values (10-60) for the weakest

pKa – the Acid Strength Scale pKa = -log Ka The free energy in an equilibrium is related to –log of Keq (DG = -RT log Keq) A smaller value of pKa indicates a stronger acid and is proportional to the energy difference between products and reactants The pKa of water is 15.74

2.9 Predicting Acid–Base Reactions from pKa Values pKa values are related as logarithms to equilibrium constants Useful for predicting whether a given acid-base reaction will take place The difference in two pKa values is the log of the ratio of equilibrium constants, and can be used to calculate the extent of transfer The stronger base holds the proton more tightly

2.10 Organic Acids and Organic Bases characterized by the presence of positively polarized hydrogen atom

Organic Acids Those that lose a proton from O–H, such as methanol and acetic acid Those that lose a proton from C–H, usually from a carbon atom next to a C=O double bond (O=C–C–H)

Organic Bases Have an atom with a lone pair of electrons that can bond to H+ Nitrogen-containing compounds derived from ammonia are the most common organic bases Oxygen-containing compounds can react as bases when with a strong acid or as acids with strong bases

2.11 Acids and Bases: The Lewis Definition Lewis acids are electron pair acceptors and Lewis bases are electron pair donors Brønsted acids are not Lewis acids because they cannot accept an electron pair directly (only a proton would be a Lewis acid) The Lewis definition leads to a general description of many reaction patterns but there is no scale of strengths as in the Brønsted definition of pKa

Lewis Acids and the Curved Arrow Formalism The Lewis definition of acidity includes metal cations, such as Mg2+ They accept a pair of electrons when they form a bond to a base Group 3A elements, such as BF3 and AlCl3, are Lewis acids because they have unfilled valence orbitals and can accept electron pairs from Lewis bases Transition-metal compounds, such as TiCl4, FeCl3, ZnCl2, and SnCl4, are Lewis acids Organic compounds that undergo addition reactions with Lewis bases (discussed later) are called electrophiles and therefore Lewis Acids The combination of a Lewis acid and a Lewis base can shown with a curved arrow from base to acid

Illustration of Curved Arrows in Following Lewis Acid-Base Reactions

Lewis Bases Lewis bases can accept protons as well as Lewis acids, therefore the definition encompasses that for Brønsted bases Most oxygen- and nitrogen-containing organic compounds are Lewis bases because they have lone pairs of electrons Some compounds can act as both acids and bases, depending on the reaction

All Lewis acids can also be classified as Brønsted-Lowry acids. Learning Check: All Lewis acids can also be classified as Brønsted-Lowry acids. True False

All Lewis acids can also be classified as Brønsted-Lowry acids. Solution: All Lewis acids can also be classified as Brønsted-Lowry acids. True False

Which statement best describes the following reaction? Learning Check: Which statement best describes the following reaction? an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Brønsted- Lowry acid an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Brønsted- Lowry base an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Lewis acid an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Lewis base None of these adequately describes the reaction.

Which statement best describes the following reaction? Solution: Which statement best describes the following reaction? an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Brønsted- Lowry acid an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Brønsted- Lowry base an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Lewis acid an acid-base reaction where NH3 acts as a Lewis base None of these adequately describes the reaction.

Learning Check: What is the main reason why molecule A is less acidic than molecule B? A: CH3CH2CH2-H B: CH3CH2O-H There are more hydrogens in A. The C-H bond is weaker than the O-H bond. The conjugate base of A is more stable than the conjugate base of B. In the conjugate base of B, the negative charge resides on a more electronegative atom. There is resonance and inductive stabilization of conjugate base of B.

Solution: What is the main reason why molecule A is less acidic than molecule B? A: CH3CH2CH2-H B: CH3CH2O-H There are more hydrogens in A. The C-H bond is weaker than the O-H bond. The conjugate base of A is more stable than the conjugate base of B. In the conjugate base of B, the negative charge resides on a more electronegative atom. There is resonance and inductive stabilization of conjugate base of B.

Learning Check: True False Ammonia can act as all four classifications of acids or bases (Lewis acid, Lewis base, Brønsted-Lowry acid, and Brønsted-Lowry base.) True False

Solution: Ammonia can act as all four classifications of acids or bases (Lewis acid, Lewis base, Brønsted-Lowry acid, and Brønsted-Lowry base.) True False

Learning Check: hydrogen bonding dispersion forces Van der Waals interactions refer to the weak attractive forces that occur between individual molecules and are very important in determining the shape and properties of biological molecules such as proteins. Which of the following play no role in van der Waals interactions? hydrogen bonding dispersion forces dipole-dipole forces magnetic forces All of these are important in van der Waals interactions.

Solution: hydrogen bonding dispersion forces dipole-dipole forces Van der Waals interactions refer to the weak attractive forces that occur between individual molecules and are very important in determining the shape and properties of biological molecules such as proteins. Which of the following play no role in van der Waals interactions? hydrogen bonding dispersion forces dipole-dipole forces magnetic forces All of these are important in van der Waals interactions.

Which is the correct order of the pKa values? Learning Check: Which is the correct order of the pKa values? H2O > HO– > H3O+ HO– > H3O+ > H2O H3O+ > HO – > H2O HO– > H2O > H3O+ H3O+ > H2O > HO–

Which is the correct order of the pKa values? Solution: Which is the correct order of the pKa values? H2O > HO– > H3O+ HO– > H3O+ > H2O H3O+ > HO – > H2O HO– > H2O > H3O+ H3O+ > H2O > HO–

2.12 Molecular Models Organic chemistry is 3-D space Molecular shape is critical in determining the chemistry a compound undergoes in the lab, and in living organisms

2.13 Noncovalent Interactions Several types: Dipole-dipole forces Dispersion forces Hydrogen bonds

Dipole-Dipole • Occur between polar molecules as a result of electrostatic interactions among dipoles • Forces can be attractive of repulsive depending on orientation of the molecules

Dispersion Forces • Occur between all neighboring molecules and arise because the electron distribution within molecules that are constantly changing

Hydrogen Bond Forces • Most important noncovalent interaction in biological molecules • Forces are result of attractive interaction between a hydrogen bonded to an electronegative O or N atom and an unshared electron pair on another O or N atom

Summary Organic molecules often have polar covalent bonds as a result of unsymmetrical electron sharing caused by differences in the electronegativity of atoms The polarity of a molecule is measured by its dipole moment, . (+) and () indicate formal charges on atoms in molecules to keep track of valence electrons around an atom Some substances must be shown as a resonance hybrid of two or more resonance forms that differ by the location of electrons. A Brønsted(–Lowry) acid donates a proton A Brønsted(–Lowry) base accepts a proton The strength Brønsted acid is related to the -1 times the logarithm of the acidity constant, pKa. Weaker acids have higher pKa’s

Summary (cont’d) A Lewis acid has an empty orbital that can accept an electron pair A Lewis base can donate an unshared electron pair In condensed structures C-C and C-H are implied Skeletal structures show bonds and not C or H (C is shown as a junction of two lines) – other atoms are shown Molecular models are useful for representing structures for study Noncovalent interactions have several types: dipole- dipole, dispersion, and hydrogen bond forces

Learning Check: Which statement about the acid-base equilibrium shown above is incorrect? the equilibrium favors the products water is a conjugate acid in this equilibrium hydroxide is the strongest base present phenol is 6 times more acidic than water the negative charge in the phenoxide is resonance stabilized

Solution: Which statement about the acid-base equilibrium shown above is incorrect? the equilibrium favors the products water is a conjugate acid in this equilibrium hydroxide is the strongest base present phenol is 6 times more acidic than water the negative charge in the phenoxide is resonance stabilized

Learning Check: What is the most likely product of the following Lewis acid-base reaction? A B C D E

Solution: What is the most likely product of the following Lewis acid-base reaction? A B C D E

Learning Check: Which of these structures is not a resonance form of the others? (The lone pairs are not shown explicitly.) a b c d e

Solution: Which of these structures is not a resonance form of the others? (The lone pairs are not shown explicitly.) a b c d e