STARTER: MATCH UP THE PROPERTY WITH A DESCRIPTION.

Ionic Bonding This is the transfer of electrons between atoms. The atoms become ions because they have lost or gained electrons.

Covalent Bonding This is the sharing of electrons between atoms. There are three ways of representing these bonds.

2.1 – 2.4 Properties   Ionic Simple (covalent) Giant (covalent) Metallic Melting point   Boiling point Electrical/ heat conductor Yes, when molten or in solution (aq) as allows ions to move No, due to no overall charge No – diamond Yes – graphite due to delocalised electrons Yes, due to delocalised electrons Strong covalent bonds, weak intermolecular forces Strong electrostatic forces Strong covalent bonds

Covalent Bonding Hydrogen = H2 H H H H This is a covalent bond. X H H X This is a covalent bond. It is strong bond formed by the pair of shared electrons in the outer shell and electrostatic attraction of the nuclei.

Hydrochloric acid = HCl Covalent Bonding Small covalent molecules you need to know about are… Hydrogen = H2 Chlorine = Cl2 Oxygen = O2 Hydrochloric acid = HCl Water = H2O Ammonia = NH3 Methane = CH4

Covalent Bonding H O H O melting Forces within the molecules (covalent bonds) are very strong. Forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces) are weak. It is these intermolecular forces which break when a substance melts or boils.

Covalent Bonding Simple covalent molecules such as H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, H2O, NH3 and CH4 all have low melting and low boiling points because the intermolecular forces are weak, so they are relatively easy to break by heating. These structures do not conduct electricity because molecules do not have overall charges.

Covalent Bonding Giant Covalent structures (or macromolecules) Silicon dioxide (silica) Diamond Graphite

Covalent Bonding Silicon dioxide (SO2) Oxygen Silicon Oxygen A silicon atom makes covalent bonds with two oxygen atoms. This means it has a full outer shell. The oxygen atoms can make a further covalent bond with other silicon atoms, hence the formation of a giant covalent structure.

Covalent Bonding Diamond (C) X O X O O X A carbon atom makes covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms. This means that all carbon atoms have formed covalent bonds so that they have a full outer shells of electrons.

Covalent Bonding Graphite (C) X I’m off O A carbon atom makes covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms. One of the electrons in carbon does not form a covalent bond with another carbon atom. This means carbon forms layers which can slide over each other due to the free electrons and weak intermolecular forces between the layers.

2.3 Graphite Layers of graphite slip off and leave a mark on paper. The free e- from each C atom can .................................. ..................................................................................................

2.3 Graphite Layers of graphite slip off and leave a mark on paper. The (Delocalised)free e- from each C atom can move in between the layers, making graphite a good conductor of electricity

Silicon dioxide (silica) Covalent Bonding Silicon dioxide (silica) Diamond Graphite Giant covalent structures all have high melting and boiling points (due to the strong covalent forces between all atoms). Diamond is very hard, graphite is soft and slippery (due to the weak forces between layers). The delocalised electrons of graphite are able to conduct heat and electricity.

Metallic structures Metals are giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern. The electrons in the highest occupied energy levels (outer shell) of metal atoms are delocalised and so free to move through the whole structure. + - So really, metals are giant structures of positive ions with electrons between the ions holding them together by strong electrostatic attractions.

Metallic structures Delocalised electrons allow metals to conduct heat and electricity. Layers of atoms mean that metal ions can slide over each other so metals can be bent and shaped. + -

Metallic structures Metal alloys consist of more than one type of metal atom. The atoms distort the layers so they cannot slide over each other. This means alloys are harder than pure metals. Shape memory alloys return to their original shape after being deformed, e.g. in braces + -

2.4 Metal Pure metals are made up of layers of one type of atoms These slide easily over one another and therefore ………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ………………………………………

2.4 Metal Pure metals are made up of layers of one type of atoms These slide easily over one another and therefore metals can be bent and shaped

polymers Polymers are repeating chains of covalently bonded monomers. The properties of polymers depend on the conditions they were made under.

polymers Low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) Small number of particles per volume High number of particles per volume Ethene molecules joined in a polymer These are made of the same monomers but the conditions they are made are different so they have different properties.

polymers Low density (LD) poly(ethene) Made using high pressure and with a trace of oxygen. Chains are branched and can’t pack together (hence the low density)

polymers High density (HD) poly(ethene) Made using a catalyst at 50oC and slightly raised pressure. They can pack closely (hence the high density). It is stronger than low density poly(ethene)

polymers Intermolecular forces (forces between chains) Weak Strong cross links Softens and resets Does not melt Thermosoftening polymer Thermosetting polymer

Nanoscience Very, very small structures; 1- 100 nanometers (nm) in size Only contain a few hundred atoms Have different properties to the same materials in bulk. Have a high surface area to volume ratio

Nanoscience Fullerene is an example of a nanoparticle made of hexagonal arrangements of carbon Possible uses of fullerenes; Catalysts Drug delivery Lubricants Reinforcing Possible uses of other nanoparticles; New computers New catalysts New coatings Sensors Stronger and lighter construction materials New cosmetics

2.5 Nanoscience Structures are: ……………………………………… or a few hundred atoms Show different properties to same materials in bulk Have high surface area to volume ratio

2.5 Nanoscience Structures are: 1-100 nm in size or a few hundred atoms Show different properties to same materials in bulk Have high surface area to volume ratio

2.5 Nanoscience Titanium oxide on windows Titanium oxide reacts with sunshine, which breaks down dirt Silver and socks Silver nanoparticles in socks can prevent the fabric from smelling