Chapter 30 The Vietnam War Years

French Indochina War France attempts to reestablish rule in Vietnam after WWII To deal with dissent, restrict freedom of speech and assembly and jailing nationalists US: provide France with economic and military support in order to strengthen ties to France and fight communism May 1954: Dien Bien Phu – Vietminh overran French outpost Geneva Accords: division of Vietnam along 17th parallel; election to unify country 1956

Ho Chi Minh Leader of Vietnamese revolutionaries Indochinese Communist Party Vietminh: organization whose goal it was to win Vietnam’s independence from foreign rule Ho Chi Minh receives popular support in North by breaking up large estates and redistributing land to peasants

Ngo Dinh Diem South Vietnamese president – Ngo Dinh Diem – recognized popularity of Minh and refused to take part in elections Diem created corrupt government that suppressed opposition and offered little to no land distribution to peasants Attacks on Buddhism (imprisoned, killed, destroyed temples) – monks in protest public burned themselves to death Kennedy military aid to Diem (advisors) Nov. 1, 1963: US-supported military coup toppled Diem’s regime; Diem was assassinated (against Kennedy’s wishes)

Vietcong 1957: Communist opposition group in the South Attacks on Diem government officials Political aspect of group – National Liberation Front (NLF) Ho Chi Minh Trail: network of paths along which Ho Chi Minh supplied arms to the Vietcong Guerilla (surprise) attacks

President Johnson and the Expansion of Conflict Diem’s death chaos to South Vietnam Tonkin Gulf Resolution Aug. 2, 1964: North Vietnamese boat fired torpedo at American destroyer, USS Maddox patrolling in Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnamese coast Another alleged attack 2 days later prompted President Johnson to allow bombing strikes on North Vietnam Aug. 7: Congress approves Johnson’s request to take “all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the US and to prevent further aggression”

President Vietnam Policy Goals Truman Economic aid to France Containing communism Eisenhower Economic and military aid to South Vietnam Preventing domino theory Kennedy Economic and military advisers Avoiding appearing “soft” on communism Johnson Stepped-up U.S. military involvement Preventing control of Vietnam by Communists

Johnson Increases US Involvement Johnson foreign policy advisers Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Secretary of State Dean Rusk March 1965: began dispatching tens of thousands of US soldiers to fight in Vietnam Many Americans viewed this action as contradictory to Johnson’s stance during campaign

Troop Buildup Accelerates End of 1965: 180,000 Americans in Vietnam General William Westmoreland American commander in South Vietnam Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN): South Vietnamese Army 1967: number of troops reached 500,000

War in the Jungle Elusive enemy Hit-and-run ambush tactics Difficult to discern friend from foe, enemy lived amidst civilians Booby traps and land mines War of attrition: gradual wearing down of enemies Battle for “hearts and minds” (rural population) Napalm: gasoline based bomb Agent Orange: leaf-killing toxic chemical Search-and-destroy missions Sinking morale (soldiers, corruption in South Vietnamese government)

The Draft “Manipulatable” Draft Selective Service System Ways around the draft Sympathetic doctors Changed residence to stand before more lenient draft board Joined National Guard or Coast Guard College deferment 80% American soldiers from lower economic levels African Americans in Vietnam Served in disproportionate numbers as ground combat troops First several years of war, blacks 20% of combat deaths though only made up 10% of US population Racial tension in platoons

Opposition and Protest New Left: youth movement wanting changes in American society Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): restoration of “participatory democracy” and greater individual freedom Free Speech Movement (FSM): UC-Berkeley April 1965: SDS organize march on Washington DC; many others over the years (October 1967 – 75,000 demonstrators) Reasons for opposition Conflict in Vietnam a civil war Oppressive South Vietnamese regime no better than Communist regime US could not police world and war draining American strength Morally wrong A nation divided (doves: support US withdrawal; hawks: support greater military force to win war)

1968: Tet Offensive January 30 Vietnamese New Year truce proclaimed Vietcong launch surprise attack on over 100 towns and cities as well as US military bases in South Vietnam Attack US embassy in Saigon Last for a month until US and South Vietnamese forces can regain control US military success but psychologically (and politically) credibility of the Johnson administration weakened

Turbulent Race for President Antiwar coalition in Democratic Party leads to division during primary race Robert F. Kennedy (perceived Johnson weakness) and Eugene McCarthy (running on an “end the war” platform) run against Johnson who eventually drops out of the race Democratic convention in Chicago – leading candidates McCarthy and Johnson’s Vice President Hubert Humphrey 10,000 protestors show up to express displeasure with Humphrey’s nomination; leads to violence between protestors and police officers trying to keep them under control Turmoil in convention hall as well is seen by millions of Americans on TV Presidential Candidates Party Career Highlights Views Hubert Humphrey Richard Nixon George Wallace

President Nixon’s Vietnam Policy National Security of Advisor: Henry Kissinger along with Nixon came up with plan to end America’s involvement Vietnamization: gradual withdrawal of US troops in order for South Vietnamese to take on more active combat role in war “Peace with Honor”: maintain US dignity while withdrawing from war; preserve US clout at the negotiation table However, at the same time, approved bombing campaign on supply routes and bases in North Vietnam as well as in Laos and Cambodia

Continued decline in public opinion My Lai Massacre: November 1969, New York Times reported that on March 16, 1968 US platoon massacred innocent civilians in small village of My Lai Invasion of Cambodia: April 30, 1970 Nixon announced US troops invaded Cambodia to clear out North Vietnamese and Vietcong supply centers Violence on campus Kent State University (May 4, 1970): massive student protest, burning of ROTC building; National Guard called in response, fired on crowd wounding 9 and killing 4 Similar violence 10 days later at all-black college of Jackson State in MS Pentagon Papers: document written for Defense Secretary McNamara 1967-1968 Revealed government plans to enter war even though Johnson promised would not send troops to Vietnam Never plans to end war as long as North Vietnamese persisted

America’s Involvement in War Comes to an End Henry Kissinger adviser for national security affairs and top negotiator in Vietnam Met setbacks when South Vietnamese refused plan to allow North Vietnamese troops to be stationed in South Vietnam January 27, 1973: US signed “Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam” – North Vietnamese troops remain in South Vietnam; Nixon respond full force to any violation March 29, 1973: last of US combat troops leave Vietnam The war itself continued until the North Vietnamese launched full scale invasion into the South; April 30, 1975 (invasion of Saigon) South Vietnamese surrendered to North Vietnamese

Legacy of the Vietnam War American veterans cope back home National response to veterans cold; faced indifference and hostility 15% of 3.3 million soldiers developed post-traumatic stress disorder Turmoil in Southeast Asia Unification of Vietnam under Communism – imprisoned 400,000 South Vietnamese into labor camps Millions of people flee Vietnam (US supporters, business owners, poor – boat people); thousands perished on the seas After US invasion Cambodia, breakout of civil war; communist group – Khmer Rouge- seized power 1975; transform country into peasant society; during reign, thought to have killed over 1 million Cambodians US policy changes Abolish draft War Powers Act: curb President’s power; must inform Congress within 48 hours of sending in forces; within 90 days must receive approval of Congress for action’s or declare war Altered America’s views on American foreign policy Cynicism of Americans towards government