Physics 2

Distance Distance-Time Graphs Gradient = Speed Flat sections are stationary Straight = steady speed Curves= acceleration or deceleration

Velocity and Acceleration Acceleration is how quickly velocity is changing Acceleration=Change in Velocity/Time Taken Velocity-Time Graphs Gradient = Acceleration Flat sections = steady speed Area under the graph represents distance Curve is change in acceleration

Weight MASS is the “stuff” inside, whereas WEIGHT is the force due to gravity Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength Earths GFS is 10N/Kg

Resultant Forces It is the overall FORCE The overall effect of forces which will decide the motion of an object If two forces are acting in the same direction, the resultant force is the sum of those two If two forces are acting along the same line, then the resultant force is found by subtracting them

Resultant Force =1600N Pushing Force =600N Driving force =1000N Resultant Force =400N Driving force =1000N Friction =600N

Acceleration If the resultant force in 0 the object is stationary It there is no resultant force on a moving object, then it will carry on moving with constant velocity If there is an resultant force, then the object will accelerate in the direction of the force That is until the force equal out again

Force = Mass x Acceleration Or Acceleration = Force / Mass When two object interact, the forces they put (exert) upon each other are equal and opposite This is called a reaction force, so if you push against something it will push back against you with equal force

Friction It acts against movement If you travel at a steady speed, the driving force needs to equal the frictional force Streamlining reduces drag or air resistance Drag increases as speed increases, as you accelerate you hit more air particles with more force. This created more drag

Terminal Velocity When an object first falls, gravity (weight) has more force than frictional forces This causes the object to accelerate downwards As the speed increases, so does the drag This reduces the acceleration Weight can not get any bigger, so you reach terminal velocity (fall at a steady speed)

Stopping Distance Thinking Distance Faster you are going = Further you will go Your Reactions- Tiredness, drugs, alcohol, bad visibility and distractions Braking Distance The Car- the condition of Tyres and condition of Brakes The Road- road surface and weather condition

Stopping Dis. = Thinking Dis. + Braking Dis. So this shows that thinking distance is directionally proportional but braking distance is squarely proportional 9m 14m 30 mph 15m 38m 50 mph 21m 75m 70 mph Thinking Braking Distance Distance Stopping Dis. = Thinking Dis. + Braking Dis.

Work Done To move an object energy has to be transferred The energy can be used usefully i.e. To move something or wastefully i.e. Friction Work Done= Force x Distance Moved

Gravitational Potential Energy When an object is lifted vertically work is done against the force of gravity. This is transferred into gravitational potential energy (GPE) GPE= Mass x Height x GFS (gravitational field strength) The Earth has a GFS of 10N/Kg

Kinetic Energy Any thing that moves has kinetic energy Kinetic Energy = ½ Mass x Speed² Moving car has lots of KE so to slow it down energy is lost i.e. Heat energy Work done = KE F x d = ½ mv² Falling objects have the potential energy lost and they gain kinetic energy

Elasticity Apply a force = Stretch the Object Work done is stored as ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY Then its goes back to its original shape releasing the energy as KINETIC ENERGY

Extension of Spring is DIRECTIONALLY PROPORTIONAL to the force applied Force = K (spring constant) x energy There is a limit to a springs elasticity, it is normal until it reaches its maximum force Past this point the spring will not return to its original shape

Power It is the rate of doing work Power = Work Done / Time Taken Measured in Watts, which means 1 Watt is 1 joule of energy transferred every second

Momentum It’s a property of a moving object Momentum = Mass x Velocity Also P before = P after Momentum is a vector, so has direction When a force acts upon an object it changes its momentum The bigger the force the faster the change of momentum

Car Safety Brakes transform the kinetic energy of the car into thermal energy on the road Regenerative brakes don’t transform into heat the transform into electrical energy Big change in Momentum in a short time = MASSIVE

End of First Half

Static Electricity It is created when two object rub against each other and either lose or gain electrons Like charges repel, so if hair had been charged then the hair would separate because their like charges repel each other However these charges can be easily lost through a conductor

Current and Voltage Current is the rate of flow of charge Current= Charge / Time The Potential Difference is the work done per coulomb of charge Voltage = Work Done / Charge

Circuits

Resistance Current through a resistor (at constant temp.) is directionally proportional to Voltage The higher the resistance the higher the potential difference However in a normal filament lamp the temperature of the filament increases this causes the curve This is a Diode. The current will only flow in one direction. The diode has a very high resistance in the opposite direction

Series All or nothing, if one component breaks ao does the circuit Potential difference is shared out, so in 23 fairy-lights on the mains electricity they all have a voltage of 10V Current is the same everywhere And the Resistance builds/adds up, 5 bulbs with 10Ω so the circuit has 50Ω

Parallel Things can be switched off separately Voltage is the same across all components However current is shared between each branch. The current going in is the same as going out, but the components have different currents going across them

Mains Electricity Supplied in AC Has 230V And has frequency of 50Hz It can be shown on an oscilloscope

Electricity in the Home Hazards: Long Cables; Frayed cables; damaged plugs; too many plugs in 1 socket; water near sockets The wires: Live wire carries the alternating current; Neutral has 0V and Earth is attached to metal casing

BROWN I G H T BLUE E F T

Fuses and Earthing Fault in the LIVE WIRE causes it to touch the metal case This causes a larger current to flow through the circuit This surge cause the FUSE to MELT This cuts of the live supply and breaks the circuit, THUS saving the appliance and the user

Live wire touches the metal casing Big Surge of Electricity to earth Fault in the Live Wire The Fuse melts/blows The appliance is SAFE

Energy and Power All resistors produce heat when a current flows through them. The more current the more heat To be energy efficient they have to transfer more of their total electrical energy to a useful source Energy Transferred= Power Rating x Time

Atomic Structure- Rutherford In 1909 Rutherford fired alpha particles at gold foil to discover more about particles He found most went straight through, this shows particles are mostly empty space Some came straight back, the shows that most of the mass is concentration in a central nucleus Some were deflected, this shows the nucleus is positive and there must be negative electrons not in the nucleus

Radiation Isotopes are atoms of the same element but are slightly different, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons Radioactivity is entirely random, it comes from an unstable and decaying nuclei. This emits alpha, beta or gamma radiation Background radiation comes from: naturally unstable isotopes like rocks and food; space like cosmic rays; Man-made places like weapons and medicine and power-stations

Types of Radiation Alpha radiation is a helium nucleus, so two protons and two neutrons. Can’t penetrate much but because of its size it’s strongly ionising (bash into atoms and knock electrons off of them) Beta radiation is an electron which is emitted when a neutron turns into a proton. Can go through some things and is mildly ionising Gamma radiation is an ray. This penetrates everything but is weakly ionising.

Radiation Safety Radiation damage depend on the type of radiation and how long you were exposed Alpha particles are deflected slightly by magnetic field but beta particles are extremely deflected by the magnetic field Granite release radon gas which can be trapped in peoples houses Nuclear industry workers wear protective clothing and face masks and have radiation badges Radiographers work behind lead screens and wear lead aprons

Half-Life Half life is the AVERAGE TIME it takes for the NUMBER OF NUCLEI in a radioactive isotope to HALVE Radioactivity never stops, there will always be some activity, so its hard to measure Short half life means lots of nuclei decay quickly, activity falls quickly

-1 Half Life- -1 Half Life- -1 Half Life-

Uses of Radiation Smoke detectors- alpha particles make and circuit and smoke breaks the circuit, making the alarm go off Sterilisation- Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria on food or medical equipment, without harming them Radiotherapy- gamma is fired at a cancer to kill all of those cells, but damage is done Tracers- beta or gamma sources are put into someone and an external detector says where most of the radiation is

Damage of Radioactivity Large amounts of radiation kill cells and leave you with radiation sickness, but nothing else Small amounts cause minor damage to cells without killing them. They then mutant and divide uncontrollably, this is a cancer Alpha is very harmful inside the body because it damages a very localised area Beta and gamma are dangerous outside the body because they can penetrate the skin

Nuclear Fission This is what happens in nuclear power stations and nuclear bombs An Neutron had to be absorbed by an unstable nuclei This creates two new smaller nuclei and releases more neutron, this makes a chain reaction This gives out a lot of energy

Nuclear Fusion This is where two small nuclei join to create a larger nucleus and energy Fusion doesn’t leave a lot of radioactive waste and there is a bounty of fuel (hydrogen) It can only happen at really high temperatures You need at strong magnetic force to hold the pressure and heat 2 1 1 3 2 H H He + +  ENERGY

Life Cycle of Stars Red Giant- hydrogen has run out and it was a small star OR Main Sequence star- long stable period where outward pressure is equal to the force of gravity (the sun) but this can’t last forever Nebula- The nursery for Stars. Clouds of Dust and gas start to form. Gravity makes it spiral and form a Protostar Protostar- Gravity is turned into heat. The temp is then high enough for nucleur fusion to start. This gives out light, star Red SuperGiant- Hydrogen has run out but it was a big star

Red Giant White Dwarf- This is what’s left after the red giant. It is a hot solid, dense core. When it cools down it becomes a Black Dwarf Red Giant- small star make this. It is unstable so ejects its outer layer of dust and gas. Planetary Nebula- This is the outer layer of duct and gas.

Red SuperGiant Neutron Star- What is left of the supernova is a dense core. This is an neutron star OR Black Hole- If the star is big enough the remains of the supernova will form a black hole Supernova- This is the explosion of the Red SuperGiant. It forms elements heavier than iron and spreads them out into the universe creating new planets and new stars Red SuperGiant- This is made from large stars. They glow more brightly because they do more fusion, so they expand