SEEP AND GOAT HEALTH AND DISEASE CONTROL Part I Ethiopia sheep and goat productivity improvement program

1. Introduction Direct losses: Economic losses attributed to animal diseases: Direct losses: Mortality productive animals (e.g. PPR, CCPP etc.) annual loss of 4-16% of sheep and 11-13% of goat population Decreased Productivity (Milk yield, body weight gain.. Decreased Reproductive performance (infertility, abortion, stillbirth…) Reduced quality/value of products (e.g. skin) Loss of Market Aggregate annual economic loss from animal diseases estimated at US$ 150 million

Introduction Cont’d… Indirect losses: Cost of prevention/ control (Vaccination, treatment, Quarantine). Endanger public health - Zoonotic and food borne infections Suboptimal exploitation of resources through forced adoption production methods - e.g. use of trypanotolerant breeds with low milk production. Ban from international markets in the case of BSE, FMD etc. Economic cost of diseases = output losses + control expenditures

Introduction Cont’d… Disease problems are reflected with signs and symptoms of illness Many diseases can show similar symptoms One should not expect to find out the exact cause of disease as: most require well-equipped laboratories and skilled personnel

2. Diseases and Disease determinants Disease: Disturbance in the function of the whole body of the host or any of its parts

Classification of diseases Diseases can be classified in many ways: A. based on causes: Infectious diseases: caused by living agents: Parasitic diseases Bacterial diseases Viral diseases Fungal diseases Non infectious diseases: Mechanical injuries, nutritional deficiencies, poisoning, genetic disorder…

B. Based on transmission Contagious: Infectious disease Transmitted by passage of infectious agent from animal to animal. Non contagious: the agent can not be transmitted from animal to animal.

Disease determinants Definition: Any factor that can affect frequency of disease occurrence in a population Types: Intrinsic - physical or physiological characteristics of the host or agent Extrinsic- External to the host

Epidemiological Triad

Agent as disease determinant The agent is the factor that causes the disease. Living agents – such as viruses, bacteria, ricketsia protozoa, helminth, arthropods etc. Non living agents – such as heat, cold, water, nutrients toxic substances etc. Diseases cannot occur in the absence of the agent (except for non-infectious diseases)

Intrinsic Determinants Agent as determinant (cont’d…) However, presence of an agent may not necessarily cause a disease. Depends on: Infectivity: The ability of a disease causing agent to establish itself in a host Virulence: A measure of the severity of a disease caused by a specified agent Pathogenicity : ability of an agent of known virulence to produce disease in a range of hosts under a range of environmental conditions.

Hosts as disease determinants The host is the animal or human that may contract a disease. The main intrinsic determinants in the host which can influence the frequency of occurrence of infection/disease are: species; Breed / genetic makeup; Sex; Age.

Species: Most disease agents are capable of infecting a range of animal species. Severity of the disease may vary between species. Certain host species may be refractory to infections with certain disease agents while others are more susceptible e.g.. Equine refractory to FMD virus which is serious in swine; Rinderpest - fatal in cattle, mild in sheep; Dogs do not develop heartwater.

Sex: A disease may be associated with sexual attributes Breed: Wide ranges of susceptibility to a particular disease often observed between different breeds e.g. certain breeds of cattle, horse, sheep, and goats more tolerant to trypanosomiasis. Sex: A disease may be associated with sexual attributes

Age: Differences in susceptibility often seen among different age groups e.g. Many bacterial /viral diseases more fatal in young animals compared to adults. can be due to absence of acquired immunity or low immunological host response. Young animals resistant to tick borne diseases

Vectors and intermediate hosts Intermediate hosts: a host in which the agent undergoes asexual phase of its development e.g. Snails Vector: An invertebrate animal that actively transmits an infectious agent from an infected host to a susceptible host

Vectors & intermediate hosts Cont’d… Vectors could transmit diseases Biologically or Mechanically Mechanical vector – is an arthropod that physically carries the agent to the host, here, the agent does not multiply and develop in the vector. Biological vectors – are arthropods in which the infectious agent undergoes a necessary cycle of development in the vector. E.g Mosquitoes-malaria

Environmental determinants The environment includes: Surroundings: location, climate and husbandry; conditions either within the host or external to it, that cause or allow disease transmission to occur. Effect of the environment : weaken the host and increase its susceptibility to disease; provide conditions that favor the survival of the agent.

affects the stability of infectious agents; Climate: Temperature: can act as a stressor. Low temperatures Hypothermia in the new born; reduces efficiency of digestion- infectious enteritis. Solar radiation- affects survival of the agent through dessiccation. Humidity: affects the stability of infectious agents; Impairment of clearing mechanism of respiratory organism leads to flare up of Respiratory diseases. Wind: carries infectious agents ( e.g. FMD virus)

Husbandry: Housing: Type of floor (Concrete, bedding materials etc.) & slope: Drainage- development of infectious agents; affects the locomotory organs (feet). High densities increase the challenge of microbial pathogens & transmission Diet: Nutrient deficiency diseases; Affects resistance to diseases.

Mode of Disease transmission Direct Indirect Susceptible host Infected host Vector

Contact transmission: Horizontal (Between the same generation of hosts). Vertical (Between different generation of host, dam to off spring). Vehicular transmission Agent transferred through inanimate substances/ objects, fomites, Water, Feed stuffs, Bedding materials etc.

ROUTES OF ENTRY INTO SUSCEPTIBLE HOST Route of entry - site at which the agent enters the host 1. Oral route – occurs by ingestion of infectious agents through mechanical vector (fomites) like water and food stuffs . 2. Respiratory route –agent acquired via this route usually associated with organic materials like mucous, dust. e.g. TB, Pasteurollosis, more likely to occur when: High population density; high humidity; and poor ventilation

Uro-genital tract: Sexually transmitted diseases e.g. Brucellosis 4. Percutaneous route (Skin, Cornea, Mucus membrane) - by direct contact with infected animals. e.g. Ectoparasites, Ringworms Intact skin - effective barrier against majority of infectious agents. Tick bites - entrance of tick born disease causative agents. Bites of mammals- entrance of e.g. rabies virus.

3. METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION Preventative health care Biosecurity Quarantine Movement control Vaccination program Parasite control Good management Good nutrition Hoof care Good housing Breeding resistant animals Control Stamping out Disinfection and Chemotherapy Vector control

isolate new animals to the herd Quarantine period depends on: Quarantine: Isolation of animals that are either infected or suspected or of non infected animals that are at risk. Used to: isolate animals imported from countries where exotic diseases are endemic. isolate new animals to the herd Quarantine period depends on: the incubation period of the suspect agent Mostly 21 days

Quarantine Cont’d… Quarantine methods: Enclosure - is the method in which the organism/ initiating factor is enclosed and prevented from getting out. Quarantine line could be: - Fences - Natural barriers

Vaccination Vaccination : - means of producing immunity to a disease by using vaccines Immunity: The body’s ability to resist infection by the presence of circulating antibodies and white blood cells Vaccine: a special preparation used to stimulate development of antibodies thus confer active immunity against a specific disease or a number of diseases

Disinfection 1. Physical disinfection Heat is the most widely used disinfectant Bunning of infected carcass, especially anthrax carcass: burning of carcass best carried out at the spot, to avoid contamination of the ground while drugging If the carcass is to be buried: the site should be far from rivers and other water bodies; The pit should be about 3m deep; The area should be fenced and not used for other purpose for at least 6-months

Disinfection Cont’d… Chemical disinfection The process of cleaning fomites and the surrounding using chemicals that kill bacteria and some viruses. Fomites include farm equipment, surgical instruments - these can be disinfected to prevent the transmission of infectious agents. Disinfectants used: Quaternary-ammonium compounds - 0.1-0.5% Formaldehyde 1-5%

Chemotherapy Chemotherapy: The destruction of agent/s in/on the animal body using drugs such as: Antibacterial - against bacteria Antifungal - against fungal diseases Anthelmintics - for internal parasites Acaricides - for external parasites

Equipment commonly used for drug administration Balling guns : Used to give boluses, capsules, and tablets - Place on top of tongue at the back of the mouth and plunger depressed Dosing syringe: Used to administer small amounts of liquids or suspensions Drencher : Give liquids or suspensions A bottle can be used for this procedure

Drug Resistance Failure of a drug to affect target micro-organisms. Causes: frequent usage of a single drug, drug abuse (wrong dosage, handling…)

Disease prevention Purchase animals from reputable sources/dealers Look at entire herd in addition to animals being purchased. Go for physical examination. Production /reproductive records, health certificates.

Disease prevention Cont’d… Quarantine new animals for sufficient time 14 – 21d Control outside traffic, illegal cross- boarder trade Control birds, rodents, stray animals & other vectors Insect vectors can be killed with insecticides. habitat of the vectors can be destroyed, e.g. remove snails, flies

Disease prevention Cont’d… Don’t mix your goats with other goats (or sheep). Don’t loan goats/sheep. Don’t loan equipment. Limit access to your farm and animals. Control dog, cat, rodent, fly, and bird populations

Basic assessment of sheep/goat health Abnormal Off-feed Lethargic Poor body condition Runny, red, or swollen eyes. Pale eyelids. Colored discharge from nose Head and/or ears handing down Droopy tail (goats) Rough hair coat Scabs, abscesses, sores. Soiled hindquarters Runny or liquid feces; blood or mucous in feces Abnormal gait Lies separate from flock Normal Hungry Alert Good body condition Bright eyes with bright pink eyelid color Dry nose or slight clear (or white) discharge from nose. Head and ears up Tail up (goat) Smooth/Shiny hair coat Clean hocks and hindquarters Formed stools Freedom from scabs, sores, abscesses, etc. Normal gait Stays with flock

Assessment Cont’d… Observe suspected animals more closely, first unrestrained then restrained Unrestrained animals: Body condition: do animals look fat and sleek or thin and rough? Hair coat: is it rough or smooth? Are their indications of external parasites? Movement and gait: does the animal favor one leg? Is the animal moving more slowly than normal? Lameness: is the animal using all 4 legs?

Assessment Cont’d… Unrestrained Cont’d… Swelling: are there obvious swellings on the body, legs, neck or jaw? Do the hooves appear swollen? Bloat: does the left side look distended or swollen? Does the animal kick at its belly? Respiration: is it faster than normal? Does the animal breathe with difficulty? Cough: Is the animal coughing? Does the cough appear to be dry or wet?

Assessment Cont’d… Unrestrained Cont’d… Discharge: nasal, eye, vaginal – what is its color and consistency? Is it bloody? Feces: are they pelleted or loose? Do they appear off-color? Urination: is the animal urinating normally? Does the urine look cloudy or bloody? Is the amount of urine normal? Eyesight: can the animal see normally? Do eyes appear red and runny? Are they white or cloudy?

Assessment Cont’d… Restrained animals Head: Do the eyes blink when a hand is moved slowly towards them? Is there any discharge from the eyes? Is the nose moist and cool? Is there a discharge? What type of discharge – runny, thick, clear, cloudy or colored? Are there sores on the nose? Are there ulcers around the lips, gums, tongue, etc.? Is there normal salivation? Check the mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth. Roll down the lower eyelid – is it pale white or pinkish red? Look at the gums – are they pale or reddish in color? Are there swellings on the jaw or neck?

Assessment Cont’d… Checking the mucous membrane of the eye Swelling on the jaw indicating Caseous Lymphadenitis “Bottle jaw” swelling indicating internal parasite infestation

Assessment Cont’d… Body: Is the animal breathing normally – between 12 and 15 times per minute? Is breathing difficult? Is the animal coughing or sneezing? Are there places where wool / hair is missing? Are there any sores or blisters on the skin? Wet, sore patches of skin may allow disease agents to enter causing infection. Are there any swellings under the skin? These may be lymph nodes or abscesses. Is the coat normal and healthy?

Assessment Cont’d… Legs and feet: Is the animal lame? Examine the foot and legs for ulcers, wounds, swelling or pain. Are one or more legs involved? Are the hooves unnaturally hot, have an odor or are painful to the touch? Is there swelling or infection between the hooves? Do the hooves need trimming?

Assessment Cont’d… Udder: Is the udder swollen or warmer than usual? Does the animal refuse the udder being touched or is it painful to the touch? Are there injuries on the teats, udder? Is the milk normal in color, quantity, and consistency?

Assessment Cont’d… Genitals: Is there any vaginal/vulva discharge? Are there any ulcers/scabs around the vulva? Is there any injury or swelling on the scrotum? Is the sheath swollen or injured? Any discharge from the penis?

Assessment Cont’d… Feces and urine: Does the animal pass urine and feces normally? Does the animal look distressed when it passes feces and urine? Are feces watery and pass more frequently than normal? Is there blood or mucous in the feces? Is the color of urine normal?

Assessment Cont’d… Body temperature: Take the temperature of the animal with a thermometer. Holding the thermometer firmly, shake it to move the line of mercury near the thermometer’s bulb. Smear a little Vaseline on the bulb end. Have someone hold the animal or tie it up. Lift the animal’s tail and gently insert the thermometer about 5 cm into the rectum. After 2 minutes, remove the thermometer, wipe it clean and read the temperature. The normal temperature of sheep and goats is between 38.5° and 40°C. Finally, shake the thermometer again, wash in cold water and dry before storing it.

Measuring rectal temperature

Assessment Cont’d… Pulse or heart rate: The pulse or heart rate should be measured on a rested animal. Place your fingertips between the animal’s ribs behind the elbow to feel the heartbeat. Pulse can be detected on the inside of the rear leg roughly 1/3 of the way down or on the artery located below and slightly inside of the jaw two- thirds to the rear of the muzzle. A normal range for adult animals is 70 to 90 beats per minute with kids and lambs faster.

Assessment Cont’d… Measuring heart rate (left) and pulse (right).

Assessment Cont’d… Respiration: Rumen movement: Watch the rib cage and count how many times the animal breathes per minute. A normal range is from 12 to 20. Rumen movement: If the rumen is not moving normally, that animal will become sick. Place your fist in the hollow on the left side of the animal behind the rib cage to feel the rumen move. A healthy goat or sheep should have 1 to 2 rumen movements per minute.

Assessment Cont’d… Checking rumen movement.

Rumination rate(/min.) Normal vital measures of goats/ sheep Temp. (C) Respiration rate (/min.) Pulse rate (/min.) Rumination rate(/min.) Goats 38.5-39.7 15 90 2 Sheep 38.3-40 19 74 1-2

Disease Reporting Facilitates timely action Source of information Importance: Facilitates timely action Source of information Actions: Report to concerned body as soon as possible Sick animals should be isolated immediately

Important points to be included during disease reporting Geographical location (zone, wereda, Kebele…etc) Species affected (Bovine, ovine, caprine, poultry…etc) When it started (Date, month, year) Major clinical signs (Respiratory, GIT …etc) Age, sex affected Course of the disease (acute or chronic) Number of cases

An emergency report Send immediately to the woreda office Aware the neighbouring PAs Stop animal and animal products movement Take appropriate samples and submit to the Regional Laboratory Properly dispose dead animals

Important epidemiological information Population at risk; Possible source of infection (new contact animal, marketing…etc) Major change in weather, feed, water…etc Measures taken (treatment, vaccination…etc)

Major Bacterial diseases

Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) Host: mainly goats. Sheep suspected to be sources of infection Transmission: aerogenically through droplets (direct contact) Clinical signs: Incubation Period: variable Can be as long as 2 months respiratory signs (coughing, difficult breathing) Joint problems, mastitis Frothy nasal discharge

CCPP treatment and control Treatment with broad spectrum antibiotic is effective. Tylosin and Oxytetracycline Ring vaccination (around outbreak sites) Restriction of animal movement

Pasteurolloses Hosts affected: Cattle, Sheep and goat Transmission: Contact Occurrence: nationwide Stress (Environmental and physiological ) are pre requisite for pathogenicity

Pasteurolloses - clinical signs Incubation period 7-10 days Some animals stop eating and look tired and weak; high fever; often cough a lot and have distressed breathing that become worse through time; Breathing often rapid but weak; Some animals collapse and die in a few hours; Other animals are sick for several days; Lose weight and become thin and weak.

Clinical signs Cont’d… Animals grind their teeth. Usually have diarrhea. They die after 5-6 days if they not treated In dead animals: both lungs have red/grey patches. The air ways have mucus. Animals that were sick for several days have yellow fluid in the chest.

Pasteurolloses - control strategies Avoid overcrowded conditions Annual vaccinations Drugs are available in any veterinary clinic and pharmacy: sulphadimidin, streptomycin, Oxytetracycline

Brucellosis Species affected : sheep and goats Ingestion of pasture contaminated by vaginal discharge and aborted fetus is the main route of transmission Clinical sign Abortion Infertility in aborted animal

Brucellosis - Diagnosis & control serological examination Treatment: no satisfactory treatment Prevention & Control Proper disposal of aborted foetus Disinfection of contaminated site Isolation of aborted animal Test and cull positive animals

Anthrax Species Affected: all warm blooded animals chickens are relatively resistant to the disease Transmission usually by ingestion of contaminated feed Outbreaks often associated with heavy rainfall, flood or drought

Anthrax - clinical signs Incubation period: 12-24 hrs. Clinical signs: Sudden death may be the only sign in ruminants, Staggering, trembling and difficult breathing may be seen in some animals, followed by rapid collapse, terminal convulsions and death. depression, disorientation, muscle tremors, abortion, congested mucous membranes ,and bloody discharges from the nose, mouth and anus

Anthrax - Clinical findings

Anthrax - Precautions Carcass: opening an infected carcass for necropsy should be avoided. Anthrax spores can remain viable for decades in the soil or animal products such as dried or processed hides and wool.

Anthrax - Control strategies Disease gives no time for treatment. However, penicillin is most effective for less severe forms Burn or bury dead bodies in such a way that it is deep and far from watering and grazing sites. Annual vaccination

Foot rot and foot scald Foot rot is caused by the interaction of two anaerobic bacteria and is highly contagious. Foot scald involves only one bacteria and is not contagious. Primary symptom is lameness in one or more feet. Foot rot infection is in hoof vs. foot scald which is between toes. Foot rot has a characteristic foul odor.

Viral Diseases

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Species affected: Goats more susceptible than sheep Transmission: close contact between healthy and sick animals Clinical signs: clear discharge from the nose, sores in the mouth, intermittent diarrhea, fever (42oc) , restlessness, Zebra marking of the inflamed intestinal mucus membrane upon necropsy examination

PPR lesions

PPR - control strategies No treatment for PPR :Broadspectrum antibiotics to control secondary infection Isolation of animals with signs of PPR Annual vaccination of sheep/goat before start of rainy season

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Animals get infection via direct contact The disease manifests itself in the form of blisters in the mouth, mainly in the dental pad. Strings of saliva, fever The feet also develop sore and animals become lame Loss of body condition Infected animals often recover after losing their condition, some die.

FMD - control strategies No treatment for FMD. Broad spectrum antibiotic administration helps to prevent secondary bacterial infection Animal movement should be restricted to stop the spread

Contagious Ecthyma (Orf ) Transmission: direct or indirect contact Disease characteristics: sore patches around the mouth

Orf - disease characteristics Ewes and does with painful teats will not allow lambs or kids to suckle, and these lambs and kids may die of starvation. Adult animals that are affected will not eat properly and may lose condition NB: Humans can become infected while handling affected animals

Orf - control strategies There is no treatment for Orf. Antibiotic for secondary infection Affected animals should be isolated.

Sheep and goat pox occurs in both sheep and goats. most severe in very young animals. Some young sheep and goats die before showing signs of the disease. The disease spreads by direct contact between animals and contaminated materials. Signs: Sheep and goats become sick 1-7 days after infection. Most animals are weak and tired and stop eating.

Sheep and goat pox Infected animals experience a high fever for a short time. A watery discharge from the nose and eyes. Increased salivation. often have distressed breathing. Pregnant sheep and goats often abort. Small red patches on the skin usually around the mouth, on the head, under the tail and between the legs. The patches become swellings under the skin. Then they become blisters that break and become open sores that soon develop scabs.

Sheep pox lesion observed on the skin Sheep pox lesion observed under the tail

Sheep and goat pox – Control strategies Treatment: There is no treatment for sheep and goat pox: Topical antiseptic treatment of bad or deep sores. Give antibiotics to prevent secondary infection Annual vaccination

Tick borne diseases – Heart water Species affected: Ruminants Transmission : tick borne disease (Amblyoma spp) Clinical signs Incubation period 1 week-a month Young animals (up to 3 weeks) are resistant Imported breeds highly susceptible clinical sign variable based on resistance of host Per acute: Fever 42ºC,death after convulsion for about 36hrs Acute form: High body temperature, loss of appetite

Heart water cont’d… gradual development of nervous sign( staggering circling..) dyspnea, Increased pulse and respiration rate Moist cough Abortion in pregnant animals Treatment : Oxytetracycline 10% (5-10 mg /kg IV) Control : Systematic tick control

Respiratory symptoms Infectious Non-infectious Pneumonia Allergy Dust Symptoms to look for Elevated body temperature Yellowish discharge Heavy, labored breathing Chest congestion Non-infectious Allergy Dust Poor ventilation Nasal bots Lung worms A clear, bilateral, watery nasal discharge is relatively common, especially in sheep, usually due to poor ventilation and/or temperature fluctuations.

Normal stool is hard round balls”, but feeding can alter consistency. Diarrhea – Scours Increased frequency, fluidity, or volume of fecal excretion. Normal stool is hard round balls”, but feeding can alter consistency. Infectious Bacterial E. coli Salmonella Viral Protozoa Coccidia Cyrptosporidia Giardia Non-infectious Parasites Nutritional Management Stress

Role of Development Agents Development agents are expected to do the following in their mandate areas: Give regular public awareness education on the prevention and control of animal diseases Coordinating the community on the prevention of animal diseases; Reporting disease outbreaks;   Keeping information on livestock resources in the mandate area;  

Role of Development Agents Collect information on the disease situation of small ruminants in the area from the nearest clinic and/or Regional Laboratory to support action; Collect information on the recent disease control activity in small ruminants in the area. Create awareness among farmers on management, disease prevention and control needs of improved genotypes

Role of Development Agents Prepare vaccination calendar in consultation with the community and the nearest veterinary clinic and follow up its implementation; Ensure that animals are regularly treated for internal and external parasites; Ensure availability of assigned animal health personnel for close health follow up; Ensure availability of essential drugs for the improved genotypes

Role of Development Agents Assist SDSPs to provide sustainable external parasite control service to the community Assist the farmer to plant improved forage Follow up the required data to be collected Submit monthly disease reporting format to the woreda office of agriculture Report disease outbreak to the nearest clinic, implement bio-security and collect information on the outbreak.