Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices Chapter 10 Funding IT Jason C. H. Chen, Ph.D. Professor of MIS School of Business Administration Gonzaga University Spokane, WA USA

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 2 Learning Objectives Understand how IT costs are best allocated across an organization. Describe the method that is most likely to be fair and accurate. Define how companies determine what the real costs are for IT investments (TCO and Activity-based costing). Identify which metrics (ROI, NPV, etc.) that should be used to evaluate IT investments. Understand the uses and benefits of business cases.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 3 Real World Examples The CIO of Avon Products Inc. relies heavily on hard-dollar metrics like NPV, and IRR to demonstrate business value in IT investments. Although not the typical IT metrics they are what business understands. Avon uses payback, NPV, IRR and risk analysis for every investment. Business side of IT is similar to the business itself.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 4 FUNDING IT RESOURCES

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 5 Funding IT Resources Who pays for IT? Users, IT department, Corporate, etc. There are three main funding methods: Chargeback Allocation Corporate budget The first two are done for management reasons, while the latter recovers costs using corporate coffers

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 6 Chargeback IT costs are recovered by charging individuals, departments, or business units Rates for usage are calculated based on the actual cost to the IT group to run the system and billed out on a regular basis They are popular because they are viewed as the most equitable way to recover IT costs However, creating and managing a chargeback system is a costly endeavor

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 7 Allocation Recovers costs based on something other than usage, such as revenues, log-in accounts, or number of employees Its primary advantage is that it is simpler to implement and apply There are two major problems: The 'free rider' problem Deciding the basis for charging out the costs True-up process is needed where total IT expenses are compared to total IT funds recovered from the business units.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 8 Corporate Budget Here the costs fall to the corporate “bottom line”, rather than levying charges on specific users or business units In this case there is no requirement to calculate prices of the IT systems and hence no financial concern raised monthly by the business managers However, the drawbacks of the three methods are shown in the next slide (Figure 10.1).

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 9 Funding Method DescriptionWhy do it?Why not do it? ChargebackCharges are calculated based on actual usage Fairest method for recovering costs since it is based on actual usage Must collect details on usage; often expensive and difficult AllocationExpenditures are divided by non- usage basis Less bookkeeping for IT; predictable monthly costs IT department must defend allocation rates Corporate Budget Corporate allocates funds to IT in annual budget No billing to the businesses. Good for encouraging use of new technologies. Have to compete with all other budgeted items for funds Figure 10.1 Comparison of IT funding methods

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 10 HOW MUCH DOES IT COST?

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 11 Overview The most basic method of determining costs is to add up all of the hardware, software, network, and people involved in IS. Real cost is not as easy to determine. Most companies continue to use the over- simplistic view of determining cost and never really know the real cost.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 12 Activity Based Costing Activity Based Costing (ABC) counts the actual activities that go into making a specific product or delivering a specific service. Activities are processes, functions, or tasks that occur over time and have recognized results. They consume assigned resources to produce products and services. Activities are useful in costing because they are the common denominator between business process improvement and information improvement across departments ABC is the process of charging all costs to “profit centers” instead of “cost centers.”

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 13 Total Cost of Ownership Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is fast becoming the industry standard It looks beyond initial capital investments to include costs associated with technical support, administration, and training. This technique estimates annual costs per user for each potential infrastructure choice; these costs are then totaled. Careful estimates of TCO provide the best investment numbers to compare with financial return numbers when analyzing the net returns on various IT options

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 14 CategoryInfrastructure ComponentCost per end user of Option 1Cost per end user of Option 2 Hardware Desktops Servers Mobile platforms Printers Archival storage Technical support Administration Training Informal support Retirement Total Hardware Cost Software OS Office Suite Database Proprietary Technical support Administration Training Informal support Total Software Cost Network LAN WAN Dial-in lines/modems Technical support Administration Total Network Cost Data Removable media Onsite backup storage Offsite backup storage Total Data Cost FIGURE 10.2 TCO component evaluation.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 15 TCO Component Breakdown TCO estimates should be computed per component and then divided among all users who access them (servers, printers, etc.) For more complex situations. –Such as when only certain groups of users possess certain components, it is wise to segment the hardware analysis by platform Soft costs, such as technical support, administration, and training are easier to estimate than they may first appear. Informal support is harder to pin down

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 16 CategoryComponentResponsible Party Annual hours Cost/ hour Total cost Technical support Hardware phone support.Call center In-person hardware troubleshooting IT operations Hardware hot swapsIT operations Physical hardware repairIT operations Total cost of technical support Administration Hardware setupSystem administrator Hardware upgrades/ modifications System administrator New hardware evaluationIT operations Total cost of administration Training New employee trainingIT operations Ongoing administrator trainingHardware vendor Total cost of training Total soft costs for hardware Figure 10.3 – Soft costs considerations

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 17 TCO as a Management Tool TCO also can help managers understand how infrastructure costs break down It provides the fullest picture of where managers spend their IT dollars as TCO results can be evaluated over time against industry standards Even without comparison data, the numbers that emerge from TCO studies assist in decisions about budgeting, resource allocation, and organizational structure

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 18 BUILDING A BUSINESS CASE

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 19 Business Case A business case is a structured document where all relevant information needed to make a decision is laid out. It is similar to a legal case. The business case for an IT project is –a way to establish IT priorities. Determine which projects to invest in –an opportunity to identify how IT and the business will deliver new benefits, gain commitment from business managers, and create a basis for monitoring the investment Primary elements are listed in Figure 10.4 Critical to business case is to identify –costs and benefits, –Financial and non-financial. –Fig 10.5 shows how these benefits are identified.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 20 Section or Component Description Executive SummaryOne or two page description of the overall business case document. Overview and Introduction Includes a brief business background, the current business situation, a clear statement of the business problem or opportunity and a recommended solution at a high level Assumptions and Rationale Includes issues driving the proposal (could be operational, human resource, environmental, competitive, industry or market trends, financial or otherwise), Program SummaryIncludes high level and then detailed description of the project, well-defined scope, objectives, contacts, resource plan, key metrics (financial and otherwise), implementation plan (high level discussion and potential impacts) and key components to make this a success. Financial Discussion and Analysis Starts with financial summary. Then includes details such as projected costs/revenues/benefits, financial metrics, financial model, cash flow statement, and assumptions that went into creating financial statements. Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) calculations analysis would go in this section. Benefits and Business Impacts Starts with business impacts summary. Then includes details on all non-financial outcomes such as new business, transformation, innovations, competitive responses, organizational, supply chain, and human resource impacts. Schedule and Milestones Outlines the entire schedule for the project, highlights milestones and details expected metrics at each stage (what makes the go/no-go decision at each stage). If appropriate, this section can also include a marketing plan and schedule (sometimes this is a separate section). Risk and Contingency Analysis Includes details on risks, risk analysis and contingencies to manage those risks. Includes sensitivity analysis on the scenario(s) proposed and contingencies to manage anticipated consequences. Includes interdependencies and impact they will have on potential outcomes. Conclusion and Recommendation Reiterates primary recommendation and draws any necessary conclusions AppendiciesCan include any back up materials that were not directly included in the body of the document such as detailed financial investment analysis, marketing materials, competitors literature, Figure 10.4 – Components of a Business Case

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 21 Type of Business Change Innovation (Do new things) Improvement (Do things better) Cessation (Stop Doing Things) High degree of explicitness Low Financial Benefits Financial value can be calculated by applying a cost/price or other valid financial formula to a quantifiable benefit (judge go/no go decision) Quantifiable Benefits There is sufficient evidence to forecast how much improvement/benefit should result from the changes. Measurable Benefits Although this aspect of performance is currently measured, or an approximate measure could be implemented, it is not possible to estimate how much performance will improve when changes are implemented. (using existing measures to ensure alignment with the business strategy) Observable Benefits By using agreed criteria, specific individuals or groups will use their experience or judgment to decide the extent the benefit will be realized. (subjective, intangible, soft, or qualitative benefits) Figure Classification Framework for Benefits in a Business Case

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 22 IT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 23 IT Portfolio Management IT investments should be managed as any other investment would be managed by an organization. IT Portfolio Management refers to the process of evaluating and approving IT investments as they relate to other current and potential IT investments. Often involves picking the right mix of investments. Goal is to fund and invest in most valuable IT initiatives that taken together as a whole, generate maximum benefits to the business.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 24 Asset Classes IT Portfolio According to Weill and Aral, there are four asset classes of IT investments: –Transactional systems – systems that streamline or cut costs on business operations. –Informational systems – any system that provides information used to control, manage, communicate, analyze or collaborate. –Strategic systems – any system used to gain competitive advantage in the marketplace. –Infrastructure systems – the base foundation or shared IT services used for multiple applications (e.g., servers, networks, databases and laptops)

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 25 Relative Investment Profile Average firm allocates 54% to infrastructure each year and only 13% to transactional systems. Service companies (such as food service) allocate: 26% to informational systems 18% to transactional systems 45% to infrastructure systems 11% to strategic systems Figure 10.6 contains a sample of the cost-risk-benefit analysis. Figure 10.7 summarizes a typical IT portfolio. Table 10.8 summarizes the differences of strategies.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 26 Investment Costs Purchase of new call center hardware and software: £250,000 Cost of implementation technical consultants: £120,000 Internal systems development costs (for configuration): £150,000 Infrastructure upgrade costs: £75,000 Business change costs: £270,000 Training costs: £80,000 Total: £945,000 Net increase in annual systems support and license costs: £80,000 Risk Analysis Technical Risks: Complexity of the systems functionality Number of system interfaces and systems being replaced Financial Risks: Confidence in some investment costs—especially business change Confidence in the evidence for some of the benefits Business criticality of areas affected by the system Organizational Risks: The extent of changes to call center processes and practice Limited existing change management capability Call center staff capability to promote more technical services Customer willingness to share information for profiling purposes Figure 10.6 – Sample cost-risk-benefit analysis

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 27 Figure 10.7 Average Company’s IT Portfolio Profile

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 28 Infrastructure investments Transactional investments Informational investments Strategic investments Average Firm 54%13%20%13% Cost Focus 42%40%13%5% Agility Focus 58%11%14%17% Table 10.8 IT Investment strategies compared

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 29 VALUING IT INVESTMENTS

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 30 Costs and Benefits of IT Investments Tangible vs. Intangible What are the intangible benefits? –tighter systems integration –faster response time –more accurate data –better leverage to adopt future technologies –better customer loyalty

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 31 Valuing IT Investments Monetary costs and benefits are important but not the only considerations I making IT investments. Soft benefits, such as the ability to make future decisions are often part of the business case for IT investments, make it difficult to measure the payback of IT investment –First, IT can be a significant part of the annual budget, thus under close scrutiny. –Second, the systems themselves are complex, and calculating the costs is an art, not a science. –Third, because many IT investments are for infrastructure, the payback period is much longer than other types of capital investments. –Fourth, many times the payback cannot be calculated because the investment is a necessity rather than a choice, and there is no tangible payback Figure 10.6 show the valuation methods used.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 32 Valuation MethodDescription Return on Investment (ROI)ROI= (Estimated lifetime benefits- Estimated lifetime costs)/Estimated lifetime costs Net Present Value (NPV)Calculated by discounting the costs and benefits for each year of system’s lifetime using present value Economic Value Added (EVA)EVA = net operating profit after taxes Payback AnalysisTime that will lapse before accrued benefits overtake accrued and continuing costs Internal Rate of Return (IRR)Return that the IT investment is compared to the corporate policy on rate of return Weighted Scoring MethodsCosts and revenues/savings are weighted based on their strategic importance, etc PrototypingA scaled-down version of a system is tested for its costs and benefits Game Theory or Role-playingThese approaches may surface behavioral changes or new tasks attributable to a new system SimulationA model is used to test the impact of a new system or series of tasks; low-cost method Figure 10.9 Valuation Methods

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 33 MONITORING IT INVESTMENTS

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 34 IT Investment Monitoring “If you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it”. Management needs to make sure that money spent on IT results in organizational benefit. Must agree upon a set of metrics for monitoring IT investments. –the metrics are often financial in nature (ROI, NPV, etc.). –other metrics include logs of errors encountered by users, end-user surveys, user turnaround time, logs f computer and communication up-/downtime etc. –business-focused metrics include number of contacts with external customers, sales revenue accrued from web channels, new business leads generated.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 35 The Balanced Scorecard Focuses attention on the organization’s value drivers (which include financial performance) Companies use it to assess the full impact of their corporate strategies on their customers and workforce, as well as their financial performance over a period of time. This methodology allows managers to look at their business from four perspectives: customer, internal business, innovation/learning, and financial Figure 10.7 shows the relationship of these perspectives.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 36 Figure 10.7 The Balanced Scorecard perspectives Innovation/

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 37 The Balanced Scorecard Applying the categories of the balanced scorecard to IT might mean interpreting them more broadly than originally conceived. –For example, customer perspective for MIS scorecard might be a user within the company (not the external customer of the company) The questions asked when using this methodology are: –How do customers see us? (Customer) –At what must we excel? (Internal business) –Can we continue to improve and create value? (Innovation and learning) –How do we look to shareholders? (Financial)

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 38 DimensionDescriptionExample IT Measures Customer Perspective How do customers see us? Measures that reflect factors that really matter to customers Impact of IT projects on users, impact of IT’s reputation among users, user defined operational metrics Internal Business Perspective What must we excel at? Measures of what the company must do internally to meet customer expectations. IT process metrics, project completion rates, system operational performance metrics Innovating and Learning Perspective Can we continue improve and create value? Measures of the company’s ability to innovate, improve and learn IT R&D, New technology introduction success rate, training metrics Financial Perspective How do we look to shareholders? Measures to indicate contribution of activities to the bottom-line IT project ROI, NPV, IRR, cost/benefit, TCO, ABC Figure Balanced Scorecard Perspectives

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 39 The IT Balanced Scorecard A scorecard used within the IT department. –Helps senior IS managers understand their organization’s performance, and measure it in a way that supports its business strategy –For example, at FirstEnergy, three business value drivers are identified: reliability, finance, and winning culture The IT scorecard is linked to the corporate scorecard, by insuring that the measures used by IT are those that support the corporate goals Helps senior managers understand their organization’s performance.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 40 IT Dashboards IT dashboards summarize key metrics at any given point in time for senior managers in a way that provides quick identification of the status of the organization (both inside and outside the IT department, for example executive offices) Dashboards provide frequently-updated information on areas of interest within the IT department. The data tends to focus on project status or operational systems status. Problems can also be identified and handled without waiting for the monthly CIO meeting Built on information contained in other apps.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 41 OPTIONS PRICING

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 42 Options Pricing Options pricing has long been used on financial assets as a method of locking in a price to be paid in the future. –The concept of options can be extended to evaluating IT investments, i.e., IT projects is viewed as a option to exchange the cost of the project for its benefits down the road. Options pricing offers management the opportunity to take some future action in response to uncertainty about changes in the business and its environment. It offers a risk-hedging strategy to minimize the negative impact of risk when uncertainty can be resolved by waiting to see what happens. Fig offers a simple example of how it works.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 43 Figure NPV vs. Option Pricing View. $130,000 (0.5) ($350,000 - $100,000) (0.5) ($20,000 - $100,000) (0.5) ($350,000 - $100,000) favorable unfavorable

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 44 Option Pricing View They are especially applicable in the following situations: –When an investment can be deferred. –In helping managers strike a balance between waiting to obtain valuable information and forgoing revenues or strategic benefits from an implemented project. –For emerging investments. –For prototyping investments. –For technology-as-product investments. Downside – sensitive to certain parameters, especially volatility.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 45 Three (3) Phases of Trigeorgis’ Framework

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 46 Trigeorgis’ Framework Objective of value management refers to broad measure of NPV Strategic NPV = Traditional NPV of expected cash flows + Value of operating options from flexible management Investment interaction effects Strategic management of investments requires management of collection of future investment opportunities and options Appropriate control targets are necessary for effective implementation of value-maximizing approach

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 47 The Risks of Information System Success 1. Systems that change the basis of competition to a company’s disadvantage 2. Systems that lower entry barriers 3. Systems that bring on litigation or regulation 4. Systems that increase customer’s or suppliers’ power to the detriment of the innovator 5. Bad timing 6. Investments that turn out to be indefensible and fail to produce lasting advantage 7. Systems that pose an immediate threat to large, established competitors 8. Inadequate understanding of buying dynamics across market segments 9. Cultural lag and perceived transfer of power N Dr. Chen, The Trends of the Information Systems Technology

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 48 FOOD FOR THOUGHT: WHO PAYS FOR THE INTERNET?

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 49 Who Pays for the Internet? 1.4 billion users on the Internet. –21.9% of the world’s population –Not one pays a “bill” to the Internet. Service providers (telephone companies, etc.) provide access for a fee. –These fees alone do not “pay” for the Internet. Several organizations are responsible for portions of the Internet. –Internet Society (ISOC) –Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) –Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 50 So Who Pays? US Government through the National Science Foundation subsidizes a portion. –Provide a backbone for science, engineering and education. Academic institutions and corporations bear some of the cost by providing access. Service providers pay for systems linked together over the backbone. –Users pay service providers, so they pay for the Internet. –So, everyone who uses the Internet pays for it.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 51 Summary IT is funded using either chargeback, allocation, or corporate budget. Chargeback is viewed as most equitable. TCO is used to understand ALL costs associated with a technology. Activity-based costing can be a meaningful measure of determining cost. The portfolio of IT investments must be carefully evaluated and managed. Balanced scorecards and IT dashboards are used to communicate the status and benefits of IT. Business case is a tool used to support a decision or a proposal of a new investment Options pricing offers a risk-hedging strategy.

Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices  John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Dr. Chen, Information Systems – Theory and Practices 52 END of CHAPTER 10