5.1 Life Cycle Analysis 5.2 Eco Design 5.3 Mass Flow Analysis Outline Life Cycle Analysis is a tool to assess the environmental impacts of products and processes throughout their lifecycles. This lecture provides an introduction to the scope, methodological aspects and applications of LCA. First, the underlying rationale of LCA is explored, whereafter the framework of the LCA process is presented. The steps in LCA are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of results. An important aspect of LCA is the ‘functional’ orientation of the analysis. LCA is a comprehensive and comparative evaluation of environmental flows and impacts associated to the function of products. Each subsequent step within the framework of LCA involves specific requirements that need to be adjusted to the product or process function. Although often associated with the environmental sphere, ‘life cycle thinking’ can be used in other fields as well. Applications of LCA include Life Cycle Costing, which analyses economic or financial impacts during life cycles of products and processes. A rather new concept in the field of LCA is the evaluation of social aspects from ‘cradle to grave’. In accordance with the sustainability paradigm of ‘planet, profit and people’, the social impacts are important as well. Therefore, this lecture ends with an overview of characteristics and deveopments in the field of ‘social LCA’.

5.1 Life Cycle Analysis 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts throughout the Life-cycle of Products and Processes Outline Life Cycle Analysis is a tool to assess the environmental impacts of products and processes throughout their lifecycles. This lecture provides an introduction to the scope, methodological aspects and applications of LCA. First, the underlying rationale of LCA is explored, whereafter the framework of the LCA process is presented. The steps in LCA are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of results. An important aspect of LCA is the ‘functional’ orientation of the analysis. LCA is a comprehensive and comparative evaluation of environmental flows and impacts associated to the function of products. Each subsequent step within the framework of LCA involves specific requirements that need to be adjusted to the product or process function. Although often associated with the environmental sphere, ‘life cycle thinking’ can be used in other fields as well. Applications of LCA include Life Cycle Costing, which analyses economic or financial impacts during life cycles of products and processes. A rather new concept in the field of LCA is the evaluation of social aspects from ‘cradle to grave’. In accordance with the sustainability paradigm of ‘planet, profit and people’, the social impacts are important as well. Therefore, this lecture ends with an overview of characteristics and deveopments in the field of ‘social LCA’. 2

Contents The Concept of Environmental LCA 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Contents The Concept of Environmental LCA Methodology of Environmental LCA; Goal and Scope Inventory Analysis Impact Assessment Interpretation Extending the scope of Environmental LCA; Economic LCA Social LCA

5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (1) Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do! Product systems are composed of interrelated processes Source: cycle: http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019 Inputs and outputs of product system: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268

5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (2) Some products have a dominating environmental load in production, some in use, some in disposal: Examples: books, furniture, art etc. Examples: cars, television, airco etc. Examples: Ni-Cd batteries, household chemicals, fireworks etc.

5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (3) Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products or processes over their life cycle. LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages, product parts or processes to environmental burden. LCA is often used to compare between products or design alternatives. Applications of LCA: Product improvement Support for strategic choices Benchmarking External communication

The Concept of LCA (4) LCA is a model of a complex reality! 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (4) LCA is a model of a complex reality! …of an average lifecycle of a mass product …of the effect of all impacts that occur …of their interaction. Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make a model, you must specify the goal and scope describing why you want to make the model.

Methodology of LCA (1) Goal and Scope definition Inventory Analysis 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (1) Goal and Scope definition Inventory Analysis Impact Assessment Interpretation (Source: ISO 14040) The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006

Methodology of LCA (2), Goal and Scope 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (2), Goal and Scope Questions: What is the intended application of the LCA? How much effort do you want to invest? Who are interested parties? What methodology will you use? Why is a goal and scope definition important? guidance in data collection phase communication base for data providers reference for data quality management. afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during the various LCA phases.

Methodology of LCA (3), Goal and Scope 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (3), Goal and Scope Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000 litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle. Functional unit is basis for comparison “Compare environmental impacts of packaging of 1000 litres milk in carton packages or glass bottles” ? =

Methodology of LCA (4), Goal and Scope 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (4), Goal and Scope Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects System boundaries: definition of processes that are included in the investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production of capital goods (equipment used for production and transportation) are often excluded from the system. System boundaries are further defined during the inventory process. Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity, transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)

Methodology of LCA (4), Inventory 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (4), Inventory Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and resource use Detailed defining of product system and economy-environment boundary. Only data collection for processes that are controlled by human beings (economic processes). Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled dumping of solid waste etc. Visualizing connected processes in product system Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from data libraries) to functional unit Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table

LCI table with environmental interventions 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (5), Inventory Example of Product system and Inventory Table LCI table with environmental interventions Crude oil from earth 40000 kg CO2 to air 3500 SO2 to air 20 kg NOx to air 100 kg Cd to water 5 g PAH to water 8 kg Etc. ……. electricity incineration steel production distribution use dump plastic reuse recycling

Methodology of LCA (6), Inventory 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (6), Inventory Difficulties: Data availability and quality Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies needed Measurement procedures rarely standardized Geographic variations quality of raw materials/energy sources production methods relevant environmental impacts Technology Which type of electricity production? Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process? Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?

Electricity production 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (6), Inventory Difficulties: Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output processes; Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined waste treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs: Recycling and reuse Allocation determined by number of reuse times and fraction of materials that can be recycled at a certain quality Recycling Electricity production Chlorine Plastic production Plastic bag use Salt electrolysis Paint production Old plastic Caustic Soda

Methodology of LCA (7), Impact assessment 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (7), Impact assessment Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like climate change, acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc. Land use LCI result Raw materials CO2 VOS P SO2 NOx CFC Cd PAH DDT Climate change Acidification Ecotoxicity Depletion Eutrophication Humantoxicity

Methodology of LCA (8), Impact assessment: 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (8), Impact assessment: Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization: Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to climate change Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a characterisation factor to get indicator results Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get dimensionless score (useful for comparison) Impact category Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent) Char. Factor (Global Warming Potential)

Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact 2002+ etc.) Effect Intervention Damage CO2 P SO2 NOx DDT Dust VOC Cd PAH CFC Heavy metals Greenhouse effect Acidification Pesticides Eutrophication Damage to Eco-systems Damage to human health Indicator Winter smog Summer smog Carconogenics Ozone layer depl.

Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score) does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution  weighing of results is needed Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important? Procedure of LCIA according to ISO: Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step. Normalisation is an optional step. Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not for comparison of products to the public. Procedure of LCIA according to ISO 14042. The ISO 14042 standards have recently been replaced by the ISO 14044:2006 standards, but requirements and technical content have remained the same (see also http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019)

Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations” (ISO) To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope: Are the the general assumptions reasonable? Is the functional unit well chosen? Are ISO standards applied? Has a peer review been conducted?

Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important choices or assumptions What if other allocations are applied. What if other boundaries are applied. What if other impact assessment method is used. By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how the conclusions connect with the assumptions.

Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (1) 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (1) LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can be extended to include economic and social impacts. Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC); Analysis of life cycle costs Social LCA Social impacts throughout life cycle of products and processes

Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (2) 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (2) What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a product or process? R&D Production Marketing Sales Etc. Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment): Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental services?

Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (3) 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (3) Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and health: Job quality Quality physical health Quality social health Earthly possessions Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social conditions do change more rapidly impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate emotions resulting from changes disappear with time diseases get cured people who are laid off may find new jobs)

5.2 Eco-design 5.2 Eco-Design Life Cycle Thinking within the Design of Products and Processes Outline: This presentation introduces the concept of Eco-design. Eco-design is a procedural tool for sustainable decision making, in particular towards the design of products and processes. Eco-design is aimed at improving both environmental and business performance in the development of products and processes. Eco-design incorporates the results of LCA in identifying possibilities for environmental improvement. Hence, it is a practical application of LCA (section 1.4.1) In this presentation, the Eco-design strategy wheel is presented, which can be used to visualize the environmental characteristics of a product. The axes on the strategy wheel visualizes the outcomes of environmental assessment studies (such as LCA) and generates a ‘product profile’. Because Eco-design is a direct application of LCA, the LCA process should be integrated in the conventional design process. Since LCA is a very systematic process, the design of products is often driven by creativity and spontaneity. Therefore, we discuss some difficulties related to the inclusion of environmental variables into the familiar design process. Eco-design has direct consequences for solid waste and associated environmental problems. Since most of society’s solid waste is generated due to the disposal of products, the application of eco-design will obviously affect the amount and composition of solid waste. Eco-design may lead to lower amounts of solid waste (through applied materials efficiency in the production, reuse and recycling) and a less hazardous composition of solid waste (due to the use of low-impact materials in the production) Common variants of Eco-design are Design for Environment (DfE) and Sustainable Product Design (SPD).

Contents What is Eco-Design? Implications for the Design Process. Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste. Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design.

What is Eco-Design? Eco-design… incorporates environmental aspects into the familiar design process is aimed at improving eco-efficiency (section 2.3) of products and processes evolves directly from life cycle thinking and is a logical application of LCA (section 5.1) results

Implications for the Design Process (1) 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (1) The designer considers functionality requirements of the product including its environmental implications along the life cycle. The ‘Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel’ visualizes the guidelines of Eco-Design. A ‘product profile’ is created using LCA. (Source: Brezet and Van Hemel, Ecodesign, A Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption, 1997. Electronic figure available at www.matbase.com) The Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel

Implications for the Design Process (2) 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (2) The relative complex LCA procedure and the creative slightly chaotic design process are not so easy to combine:

Complexity of the Design Process 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (3) Source: Goedkoop, M. Cleaner Production and the Water Cycle, Environmental Impact Assessment, Eco-design, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, 2005) Complexity of the Design Process

LCA information generated 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (4) Design phase Design activity LCA activity LCA information generated Product planning Target is defined as product/market combination Assessment of strategy Strategic choices Analysis Refinement of target and definition of requirements LCA of reference product Design guidelines and eco-indicators Idea generation Creativity techniques are used to generate new solutions Use of design rules and eco-indicators Pre-selection of ideas Concept Best ideas are selected and elaborated Short screenings and what-if analysis Support in concept choices Detailed design Best concept is detailed; prototype and CAD drawings Specific questions and issues Support in detailed design choices (adapted from Goedkoop, M. Cleaner Production and the Water Cycle, Environmental Impact Assessment, Eco-design, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, 2005) Application of LCA results in Design for Environment

! Implications for the Design Process (5) 5.2 Eco-design Simulation of environmental impacts by LCA can provide important guidance during the design process: …In the creative phase as pre-defined guidelines and pre-defined indicators …In the concept phase as screenings …An LCA of a reference product should be ready before the creative phase in order to develop dedicated guidelines and indicators! Possibilities for environmental improvement are large at the early/conceptual phase within the design process, when there is still freedom to change the design !

Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (1) 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (1) Eco-Design implies efficient resource use for production Eco-Design implies lower use of toxic substances Eco-Design implies efficient material and energy use …which decreases…: natural resource extractions (materials and energy) hazardous materials within discarded products toxic emissions during incineration solid waste quantities

Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (2) 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (2) Eco-Design improves Eco-efficiency: Functional performance provided by product over life cycle Eco-efficiency = Environmental Impacts of product over life cycle Source: Taeko AOE Matshushita Group (Panasonic), 2nd Eco-efficiency conference 28-30 June 2006 resource-efficiency reduction haz. substances eco-efficiency = + applying Eco-efficiency results in Eco-products…

Reduced solid waste amount and hazardousness composition 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (3) Improved material and energy content (quantity and quality) in products Reduced solid waste amount and hazardousness composition Eco-products Consequences for solid waste: Reduction of natural resource extractions (materials and energy) Reduction or elimination of hazardous materials within waste Reduction of toxic emissions during incineration

Design for Environment 5.2 Eco-design Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (1) Design for Environment (DfE): “the systematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle” (Fiksel, 1996 in Wrisberg et al. 2002). DfE… focuses on existing products and processes that fulfil a specific function (function-oriented systems) expands the design scope towards environmental and social implications of products and processes Design for Environment

Sustainable Product Design 5.2 Eco-design Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (2) Sustainable Product Design: investigates possibilities for improvement on a broader scale. Examples: Alternative Function Fulfilment (changes the way in which a specific function or need is fulfilled) System innovation (redesigning of product production systems, creating ‘closed-loop’ economies etc.) Sustainable Product Design

5.3 Material Flow Analysis 5.3 Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Analysis of Material Flows in a Region Outline Material flow analysis is a tool to analyse the flows and stocks of materials within an economic system. Because problems of environmental pollution are caused by hazardous substances, an understanding of the problem in physical terms is useful to develop effective solutions. Compared to LCA, which evaluates options related to the function of small systems (products and processes), MFA encompasses flows within broader systems defined by geographical or administrative borders. MFA’s are used to indentify the existence, intensity and fate of materials or substances within a region. The results of such a study may be helpful to develop environmental policy for resource efficiency and pollution control. Because it visualises flows from extraction to disposal, problem shifts due to environmental interventions that restrict certain flows can be identified easily. Another advantage of MFA is the possibility to calculate unknown flows and stocks by applying the mass balance principle. The law of the conservation of mass, in analogy with the thermodynamic law of the conservation of energy, enables to calculate the amount of substances by balancing inputs and outputs. As input data are often obtainable from economic statistics and technical process data which can be derived from engineering analysis, direct measurements of outputs are difficult and unreliable due to dilution or because they are produced in small quantities. In these cases, balancing inflows and accumulation with outflows gives the best results. In solid waste management MFA results are in particular useful to identify appropriate recycling options and side effects of land applications of waste residuals.

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Contents Why MFA? What is MFA? Rationale of MFA: the Mass Balance Principle Framework of MFA; System Definition Quantification of Flows and Stocks Interpretation Applications of MFA

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (1) Because products do not pollute, but materials do… Natural Resource Depletion Waste Absorption Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: waste sink Waste Residuals (Pollution) Extractions of materials

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (1) …hence, material flows and stocks from the economy are crucial to the understanding of environmental problems Material flows and accumulations Hazard potential Throughput Hazard potential Throughput Quantity-aspect Quality-aspect

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (2) … and eventually solutions are based on an analysis of environmental problems in material/physical terms (Van der Voet, 1996) Natural Resource Depletion Waste Absorption Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: waste sink Pollution Quantitatively: lower materials throughput Qualitatively: less hazardous materials Extractions of materials

5.3 Material Flow Analysis What is MFA? (1) MFA is a tool for systematic research of flows and stocks of materials from ‘cradle to grave’ (LCA!) in a region: MFA is useful for: Identification of sources of environmental pollution Identification of accumulations of hazardous substances Identification of potential control points, useful for environmental management Figure: Brunner and Rechberger 2004 Practical Handbook for Materials Flow Analysis, 2004 by CRC Press LLC

5.3 Material Flow Analysis What is MFA? (2) MFA describes the industrial ‘metabolism’ of a region: the transfer, storage and transformation of substances within an anthropogenic (=human controlled) system and the exchange of these substances with the environment (Brunner and Rechberger 2004). Examples: Sources, pathways and sinks for mercury in a watershed Nitrogen flows and stocks in the Malang area Sometimes MFA is applied on systems of smaller scale; for example the flows and stocks of heavy metals in a waste incineration plant

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Economy-Environment Boundary Processes within subsystem ‘water’ Processes within subsystem ‘earth’ Processes within subsystem ‘air’ Systematic analysis of regional material flows and stocks Systematic description of Flows and Stocks of materials in a region where activities in the anthroposhere are taking place There is an exchange of materials between and within anthropogenic (economic) and environmental subsystems Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA) Systematic overview of material flows in a region

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Rationale of MFA: The Mass Balance Principle (1) Mass balance: the law of conservation of mass Mass output = Mass input + Mass accumulation 2 1 3 Xp-q: Material Flow from process ‘p’ to process ‘q’ X0-1 = X1-2 + X1-3 X1-2 = X2-0 X1-3 = X3-0 X0-1 = X2-0+ X3-0

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Advantages of applying Mass Balance Principle Mass balances can be applied at different system levels: Single processes Complex combinations of processes at smaller and larger scales: Household Country World Valuable tool to calculate regional streams that are hardly measurable, like in waste residual outputs (Ayres 1989). Efficient way to obtain accurate results even when some data are missing

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (1) Problem 1 Goal and system definition 2 Quantification of flows and stocks 3 Interpretation

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (1) Goal definition = selection of substance or material to be investigated: single element (Substance Flow Analysis) or group of substances (Material Flow Analysis) System definition = definition of system boundaries and relevant processes Spatial boundary: Geographical or administrative boundary (e.g. watershed or country) Temporal boundary: Flows per hour or month or year. Often 1 year because of data availabillity Selection of relevant processes: Only processes that are significant to the substance(s) under investigation 1

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (2) 2 Quantification of stocks and flows: Calculate mass flows of goods that enter and leave processes (measurements or applying mass balance) Calculate substance flows within these flows (multiplying mass flows of goods with element concentrations) Calculate stocks: is there any type of accumulation occuring? (Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA) Example of mass flow of goods and a substance (Cadmium) in a municipal waste incinerator

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (3) Interpretation of results: What is the relative contribution of processes to certain flows? Where are hotspots and potential control points? Is there a possibility of problem shifting when certain flows will be restricted? 3

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (4) MFA is a cyclical process: start with provisional data and rough estimations; refine and improve system until required data quality is achieved Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA) Systematic overview of MFA procedures

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Applications of MFA: resource management Analysis and planning of resources Identification of depletion and accumulation of materials in society; forecasting of resource scarcities and ‘secondary’ sources (recycling, landfills) Example: natural resources are transformed to ‘anthropogenic’ resources; stocks in landfills become important for future mining of substances

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Applications of MFA; resource management Resource study: Copper cycle in Asia (Source: Graedel et al. 2004. Multilevel Cycle of Anthropogic Copper. In Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 1242-1252) Copper cycle in Asia The units are Gg Cu/year; Lith=Lithosphere

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Applications of MFA; environmental management Identification of existence, size and fate of hazardous substances in a region Identification of hotspots and control points Identification of problem shifts Example (hypothetical): “A Material Flow Account of a harbour watershed shows a large flow of mercury in wastewater. Laboratories are relatively the largest contributors. In wastewater treatment plants, absorption and deposition to sludge are a major removal mechanism for mercury. When mercury flows in wastewater are restricted by means of imposing advanced treatment technology to wastewater treatment plants in the region, then mercury outflows to landfills are likely to increase.” substance source problem shift

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Applications of MFA in soil management http://www.sustainable-development.veolia.com/en/repository/4FD3aVO3YjSbe2K-main.jpeg

5.3 Material Flow Analysis Applications of MFA; solid waste management MFA discerns between flows of ‘goods’ and ‘substances’ Important because substances cause environmental problems, while flows of substances can only be controlled indirectly via flows of the goods that contain the substances. “It is not the good leachate of a landfill that imposes danger to the groundwater. The danger resides in the cocktail of hazardous substances in the leachate of the landfill.” (Brunner and Rechberger 2004) MFA can identify appropriate recycling options Elemental composition of materials determine whether a material is appropriate for recycling MFA identifies side-effects of recycling Accumulation of heavy metals in soils when sewage sludge is used as agricultural fertilizer