Soil Morphology and Classification

The Language of Soils Purpose Loamy, siliceous, hyperthermic grossarenic paleudult

Reactivity of mineral and organic colloids Morphology and Classification of Soils Based on physical and chemical properties Color Texture Structure Density/Porosity Water Movement Reactivity of mineral and organic colloids Soil acidity and pH

Color Texture Structure Density Water Acidity Dark/grayish-black color Orange vs. Gray colors Texture Sandy vs. Clayey Structure Good vs. Poor Structure Density Porosity, organic matter, compaction Water Pore sizes, porosity, water movement, saturation Reactivity Cation exchange capacity Acidity Plant tolerances, buffering, base saturation All are used to classify soils

Soil Formation

Organisms/Vegetation Factors Affecting Soil Formation The 5 soil forming factors Climate Organisms/Vegetation Parent material Topography Time

Temperature and Precipitation Climate Temperature and Precipitation Rates of chemical, physical, biological processes Cold dry climates – weak to modest profile development Warm, humid climates – strong, deep profile development

Organisms/Vegetation O.M. accumulation Profile mixing Nutrient cycling Soil structure Soil solution (% B.S.) The mineral content of leaves, limbs, stems of vegetation influences the soil character and particularly acidity. Pines tend to be low in calcium, magnesium, potassium reducing nutrient cyclinig compared to deciduous trees.

Parent Material Affects texture, vegetation, nutrients clay mineralogy, CEC Deposition Colluvial (gravity) Alluvial (streams) Marine (oceans) Lacustrine (lakes) Glacial (ice) Eolian (wind) silt and clay

Topography Water Erosion Vegetation Slope Aspect Configuration of land surface – elevation, slope, depressions Hastens or delays climatic forces. Impacts depth of profile development. Water Erosion Vegetation Slope Aspect Standing versus removal of water, erosion on slopes, accumulation in depressions.

Time Duration of weathering and all other factors Additions losses translocations transformations

Stable, older sediments McCarty Hall Stable, older sediments E Shands Hawthorne Formation (geologic Clay) Younger sediments Limestone

Soil Horizons: first step in classification

Soil Horizon designations O horizon Master Horizons O organic A topsoil, O.M., cycling E elluvial B developed/accumulation C parent material R bedrock A horizon Organic matter E horizon Sandy B horizon Clays/iron C horizon Parent

Master Horizons Enough information? O horizon A horizon R horizon E horizon (Elluvial) C horizon B horizon B horizon (Illuvial)

Subordinate Distinctions

Subordinate Distinctions b – buried horizon c – concretions d – root restrictive g – gleying h – illuvial organic matter k – carbonates m – cementation o - oxic p – plowing/disturbance q – secondary silica r – soft bedrock (saprolite) s – illuvial sesquioxides and O.M. t – clay accumulation v – plinthite w – development of color/structure x - fragipan

Subordinate Distinctions g – gleying h – illuvial organic matter p – plowing/disturbance t – clay accumulation w – development of color/structure o – oxic

Subordinate Distinction (g = gleying) Oxygen deprived or reduced state due to water saturation. Reduction of iron (Fe III to Fe II) low chroma Often used with B master horizon (Bg horizon), also E and C horizon. oxidized material Fe3+ Photographs showing redoximorphic features (soil mottling) which are color patterns in the soil formed by the oxidation and reduction of iron and/or manganese caused by saturated conditions within the soil. Redoximorphic features are used to estimate the depth to seasonal high watertable oxidized gleyed material Fe2+

h = organic accumulation Subordinate Distinction h = organic accumulation Accumulation of illuvial organic matter-metal complexes Coatings on sand and discrete particles h = “humic” value and chroma approximately 3 or less Used with the B master horizon (e.g. Bh horizon) * Bh horizon “spodic horizon”

Subordinate Distinction p = plowed Disturbed surface horizon (cultivation, pasture, forestry) Used with the A master horizon (e.g. Ap horizon) Ap horizon

Subordinate Distinction t = clay accumulation Translocation of clay or formed in place Coatings or discrete Used with the B master horizon (e.g. Bt) If reduced, can be used with the g sub horizon (Btg)

Subordinate Distinction w = color or structure Non-illuvial development of color or structure “w” can = “weak” Commonly used with the B master horizon (e.g. Bw) Bw

o = oxic horizon Subordinate Distinction Low activity clays Few weatherable materials Little rock structure Fe and Al oxides The oxic horizon has:           a. a CEC7  < 16cmol(+)/kg of clay and an ECEC < 12 cmol(+)/kg of clay which is due to the low activity clay minerals (1:1 clays, Fe and Al oxides, etc)           b.  < 10% weatherable minerals in the sand fraction           c.  < 5% rock structure

Subordinate Distinctions g – gleying h – illuvial organic matter p – plowing/disturbance t – clay accumulation w – development of color/structure o – oxic

Subordinate Distinctions and Organic Matter

a, e, i Subordinate Distinction Denotes the degree of organic matter decomposition in the O horizon. Oa – highly decomposed (sapric) Oe – moderately decomposed (hemic) Oi – slightly decomposed (fibric) Sapric –most decomposed, low plant fiber, low water content Hemic – intermediate decompostion Fibric – least decomposed, recognizable fibers

Subordinate symbols: g, h, p, t, w and a,e,i Summary Master: O, A, E, B, C, R Subordinate symbols: g, h, p, t, w and a,e,i Examples: Oa, Oe, Oi Bt Bg Btg Bw Ap

Other Designations

Vertical Subdivisions Characterized by similar master and/or subordinate properties separated by “degree”. Bt horizons Bt1 Bt2 Bt3

Transitional Horizons Transitional layers between master horizons. AE EB BE Dominant character Subordinate Character

Ap AE E Bh Bt Btg1 Btg2 Synthesis

Soil Taxonomy

Soil Classification/Taxonomy Hierarchical Soil Profile Based on soil profile characteristics and the concept of soils as a natural body. Observable properties: color, texture, structure, pH, O.M… 1935, 1949,1965 comprehensive and shared by 43 other countries, Genesis 1883 V.V. Dukachaev: climate, vegetation, soil 1927 C.F. Marbut (USDA) applied to U.S. (1965)

Soil Classification/Taxonomy USDA classification system Soil Survey Staff 1965 Soil Taxonomy published 1975 Adamsville: Hyperthermic, uncoated Aquic Quartzipsamment

Soil Taxonomy Hierarchy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Order Suborder Great group Sub group Family Series 12 63 250 1400 8000 19,000

Units for Soil Classification Pedon – smallest three-dimensional unit that displays the full range of properties characteristic of a given soil. (1-10 m2 of area) - the fundamental unit of soil classification Polypedon – group of closely associated pedons in the field Soil Series – class of soils world-wide which share a common suite of soil profile properties

Soil Sampling Units Malabar Series

Diagnostic Horizons for Classification Surface Subsurface

Diagnostic Surface Horizons Epipedons Mollic Umbric Ochric Histic Melanic Plaggen Anthropic

Diagnostic Surface Horizons X = Florida Melanic X Plaggen Mollic Histic X Umbric Anthropic X Ochric X

Mollic Epipedon Thickness > 18-25 cm Color value < 3.5 moist chroma < 3.5 moist Organic Carbon > 0.6 % Base Saturation > 50 % Structure strongly developed Organic carbon = organic matter x 0.57

41°27' 04" N, 93°31' 52" W41.451073-93.530988 Taken in Elkhart, Iowa (See more photos here) View Tim Kiser's map

Umbric Epipedon Meets all criteria of the Mollic epipedon, except base saturation < 50% Chemically different than Mollic

Ochric Epipedon Too: thin light Mollic low in O.M Umbric Ochric = pale Extremely common

Histic Epipedon Organic horizon Formed in wet areas Black to dark brown Low bulk density 20-30 cm thick Organic = > 20% - 35% O.M. (water saturation, clay content)

Melanic Epipedon Similar in properties to Mollic Formed in volcanic ash Lightweight, Fluffy

Anthropic Horizon Resembles mollic (color, o.m.) Use by humans Shells and bones Water from humans

Plaggen Epipedon Produced by long-term (100s yrs.) manuring Old, human-made surface horizon Absent in U.S. > 50 cm thick

Diagnostic Surface Horizons Epipedons Mollic Umbric Ochric Histic Melanic Plaggen Anthropic Very common “specialized” Human-derived

Organic Matter Accumulation O.M. accumulation Histic Mollic, Umbric ochric time Parent material Vegetation established tmax = 3000 yrs

Diagnostic Sub-surface Horizons

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Formation Translocation Transformation Clays Organic Matter Oxides

Subsurface Horizons Organic Matter Clays Oxides Formation Translocation Transformation Subsurface Horizons Organic Matter Clays Oxides Dark colors Metals (Fe, Al) smectites Iron Aluminum Kaolinite Also: salts, carbonates, sulfides

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Albic Argillic Spodic Oxic Kandic Cambic Sombric sulfuric Natric Agric Calcic Gypsic Salic Duripan Fragipan Placic Sub-Horizon Designations

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Albic (white) Horizon Light-colored (Value > 6 moist ) Elluvial (E master horizon*) Low in clay, Fe and Al oxides Generally sandy textured Low chemical reactivity (low CEC) Typically overlies Bh or Bt horizons albic *not all E horizons are albic horizons

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Argillic Horizon Illuvial accumulation of silicate clays Illuvial based on overlying horizon Clay bridges Clay coatings Accumulation based on absolute increases compared to relevant horizon above or below. Argillic horizon. An argillic horizon is an illuvial horizon in which layer-silicate clays have accumulated to a significant extent by illuviation. They have formed below the surface of a mineral soil but may be exposed at the surface by erosion. In general, this is a B horizon which has an increase in clay content of at least 1.2 times that of the eluvial horizon above and is, in general, parallel to the surface of the polypedon. This increase of 20% in clay content occurs most in soils within a vertical distance of less than 30 cm. In case of clayey soils, this requirement would be unreasonable. If the surface horizon is greater than 40% clay, the increase of clay needed is only 8%. For sandy soils with less than 15% clay, an increase of 3% is required for meeting the criteria of an argillic horizon. In other words, if the clay content of the eluvial horizon is between 15 and 40%, an increase in clay of 20% is needed to meet the requirements for an argillic horizon.

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Argillic Horizon Kandic Horizon High Low Activity of Clays Necessary Illuviation of clay Not Necessary

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Spodic Horizon Illuvial accumulation of organic matter and aluminum (+/- iron) Dark colored (value, chroma < 3) Low base saturation (acidic) Formed under humid acid conditions Spodic

Elluviation and Illuviation Elluviation (E horizon and A horizons) Organic matter Clays A Bt A E Bh E Bh horizon Bt horizon Spodic horizon Argillic horizon

Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons Oxic horizon Highly weathered (high temperatures, high rainfall) - High in Fe, Al oxides - High in low-activity clays (kaolinite < smectite < vermiculite) activity

Diagnostic Horizons Epipedons Subsurface Mollic Umbric Ochric Histic Melanic Plaggen Anthropic Albic Kandic Argillic Spodic Oxic

Soil Taxonomy Diagnostic Epipedons Diagnostic Subsurface horizons Moisture Regimes Temperature Regimes