CECS 474 Computer Network Interoperability WAN Technologies & Routing CHAPTER 18 WAN Technologies & Routing Tracy Bradley Maples, Ph.D. Computer Engineering & Computer Science California State University, Long Beach Notes for Douglas E. Comer, Computer Networks and Internets (5th Edition)

Large Networks and Wide Areas   LANs Usually span a single building. Limited by size (unless connected by satellite bridges) => Limited scalability WANs Can span large geographic distances. Can cross public right-of-ways (streets, buildings, railroads). Deliver high (or reasonable) performance for many users. KEY ADVANTAGE => Scalability A WAN must be able to grow as needed to connect many sites spread across large geographic distances. A technology is not classified as a WAN unless it can deliver reasonable performance for a large scale network. WANs are constructed out of: Point-to-point long-distance connections Packet Switches

Packet Switches Packet switches are: Hardware devices   Packet switches are: Hardware devices They connect to other packet switches or computers They forward packets They use destination IP addresses for forwarding Packet switches are special-purpose computer systems consisting of: CPU Memory I/O interfaces Firmware   Two types of I/O devices are used: High speed -- to connect to other packet switches Lower speed -- to connect to individual computers

Modern WAN Architecture

Forming a WAN   WANs are formed by placing one or more packet switches at each site. Switches are interconnected using: LAN technology for local connections. Leased digital circuits for long-distance connections. The switches can be connected asymmetrically.   The number and type of interconnections depend on: The estimated traffic. The reliability needed. The cost of the link.

Physical Addressing in a WAN Store and Forward   Store and forward is the basic paradigm used in packet switched networks. Each Packet: Is sent from the source computer. Travels from switch-to-switch across the network. Is delivered to the destination. At Each Switch: Packets are “stored” in memory. The packet’s destination address is examined. The packet is forwarded toward the destination. Physical Addressing in a WAN WANs require: A unique address for each computer An efficient forwarding scheme. A two-part address is used with: A packet switch number. Specific computer on that switch.

Illustration of WAN Addressing The figure shows the two-part addresses.   In practice, the addresses are encoded as a single binary value with: The high-order bits for the switch number. The low-order bits for the computer number. Users and application programs can treat the address as a single integer, they do not need to know that addresses are assigned hierarchically.

Next-Hop Forwarding Next-hop forwarding is Performed by packet switches Uses a table of routes (Called a Forwarding Table and created by a routing algorithm) The table gives the next hop

Source Independence and Hierarchical Routing   Defn: Source independence means that Next-hop forwarding does not depend on the packet’s original source or on any paths the packet has taken before it arrives at a particular switch. Source independence allows the forwarding on switches to be compact and efficient. Defn: A forwarding table is the table of next-hop information stored in a switch. When forwarding a packet to another switch, a switch examines only the first part of the hierarchical address. A switch needs to look at the second part of the hierarchical address only if the destination machine is attached to that switch. Condensing the entries improves efficiency.

Routing in a WAN There are two sources of routing table information:   There are two sources of routing table information: 1. Manual (seldom used) The table is created by hand Useful in small networks Useful if routes never change 2. Automatic routing Software creates/updates the tables Needed in large networks Software changes routes when failures occur

Routing and Graph Theory Model a network as a graph with: Each switch as a node Each connection as an edge

Default Routes A large WAN may contain hundreds of duplicate entries.   A large WAN may contain hundreds of duplicate entries. A default route is a mechanism that allows a single entry in a forwarding table to replace a long list of entries that have the same next-hop value. only one default entry is allowed in a forwarding table the default route has lower priority than other entries If the forwarding mechanism does not find an explicit entry for a given destination it uses the default.

Shortest Path Computation   Shortest paths through the network can be computed using: Algorithms from graph theory Distributed computation (no central authority) A switch: Must learn the route to each destination Only communicates directly with attached neighbors For the above graph, the label on each edge represents the “distance” metric Geographic distance Economic cost Inverse of capacity

Algorithms for Computing the Shortest Paths   Both of these approaches are used in practice to compute the shortest paths: Distance Vector (DV) Switches exchange information with their neighbors and then use the Distance Vector algorithm. Use the Bellman-Ford Algorithm. Link-State Switches exchange link status information and then use Dijkstra’s algorithm. Broadcasting information. The Distance Vector Algorithm Periodically, exchange data between neighboring switches giving your information about the paths of the network. During the exchange, the switches send: List of pairs giving the (destination, distance) of connections The receiving switch: --Compares each item in the switch to local routes --Changes the routes if a better path exists

Distance Vector Intuition   Let N be the neighbor that sent the routing message V be the destination in the pair D be the distance in the pair C be D plus the cost to reach the sender If no local route to V exists, or if the local route has a greater cost than C, install a route with next hop N and cost C. Else ignore the pair. Example for Distance Vector Routing Note: In DV Routing, the information that is passed from one node to another, takes time to propagate through the entire network. “Good news travels quickly” but “Bad news travels slowly” Consider transmission of one DV message: Node 2 sends to 3, 5 and 6 Node 6 installs cost 8 for route 2 Later 3 sends update to 6 6 changes route to make 3 the next-hop for destination 2

Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm Link-State Routing   Overcomes some of the instabilities of Distance Vector Routing. Pairs of switches periodically: Test the link between them Broadcast a link status message Each switch: Receives the status message Computes new routes Uses Dijkstra’s algorithm Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm   Input: • Graph with weighted edges Node, n Output: • Set of shortest paths from n to each node Cost of each path Called the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm.

Dijskra’s Algorithm Intuition   Start with self as the source node Move outward At each step: Find node u such that it Has not been considered Is “closest” to the source Compute Distance from u to each neighbor v If the distance is shorter than what is currently recorded, make a path from u go through v Example: Routes from node 6: To node 3: next hop = 3, cost = 2 To node 2: next hop = 3, cost = 5 To node 7: next hop = 7, cost = 5 To node 4: next hop = 7, cost = 8 To node 5: next hop = 3, cost = 11 To node 1: next hop = 3, cost = 20