Concepts of Forest Regeneration

Regeneration vs. Reproduction Regeneration: the act of renewing tree cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially (verb) Reproduction: Seedlings or saplings existing in a stand (noun)

Artificial vs. natural regeneration Natural Regeneration - stand establishment is from natural sources: natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, layering Artificial Regeneration - stand establishment is from human intervention: planting seedlings or cuttings or by direct seeding.

Reforestation vs. afforestation Reforestation: reestablishment of forest cover on areas where it once occurred Afforestation: introduction of trees to sites that did not support forests or had no forest cover for a long period of time.

Concepts of Regeneration Key goals of a regeneration strategy: Make the results predictable Control microenvironment Ensure prompt replacement of the stand Affect species composition Match species to site and to objectives Arrest succession Many desirable species are early successional (oak and pine)

Concepts of Regeneration Key goals of a regeneration strategy: Appropriately stock the site with desirable species Number and distribution Set the stage for future management Minimize poor or excessive stocking Minimize remedial treatments (problems that require fixing) Intermediate treatments should, where possible, be constructive Minimize the chance of failure Ensure adequate seed supply Ensure proper seed bed for good germination and establishment Take prompt remedial action if necessary

Concepts of Regeneration Origin of reproduction Seed vs. vegetative New individual vs. clonal

Categories of Reproduction New seedlings: originate following regeneration event Advance reproduction: in place prior to regeneration event and released by event Stump sprout: traditionally from stump >2” ground line diameter Root suckering: sprouts from shallow lateral roots Typically follows the severing of the parent stem and with direct sunlight to the forest floor Examples: black locust, sweetgum, aspen

Stump Sprouting

Stump Sprouting Probability by Age and Species Sprouting tends to decrease with size and age and varies by species Stump Sprout Probability Tree Age

Regeneration Process New forest communities establish whenever three conditions develop: Presence of abundant viable seed or vegetative propagules Soil and seedbed conditions enable germination of seed or help induce shoot development off parent trees Environmental conditions foster the survival and growth of established trees

Regeneration Process Seed Supply Flowering and seed production Influenced by species, genetics, climate Can be cyclical and have high year-to-year variation Example: masting species such as oaks

Regeneration Process Seed dispersal Reproductively mature trees within dissemination range required for regeneration from seed Vegetative or artificial regeneration required if seed is not available Factors influencing seed dissemination (i.e., dispersal) Height of release Distance from source Abundance of seed Weight and aerodynamic structure Activity of dispersing agent Wind speed and direction, topography, numbers and movement of animals

Seed dispersal distance is species dependent

Regeneration Process Seed bank Viability and germination stimuli various among species

Regeneration Process Seed Bed and Germination Physical characteristics of forest floor affect germination Litter depth and type Some species (for example, many pines) require a mineral seedbed Mineral seed beds can created by natural disturbances (i.e. fire) or site preparation treatments Position of seed within the seedbed affect predation and germination rates Light, temperature, and moisture affect seed viability and germination

Concepts of Regeneration Generally, Light wind-disseminated seeds require mineral seedbed Large seeded species like oaks are aided by being buried under a litter layer as long is it is not too thick (5 cm) Litter layer helps protect against predation, desiccation, and extreme temperatures

Species of the Central Hardwood Region Seed Dissemination   Gravity Animals Wind Yellow-poplar X White oak Chestnut oak Black oak Northern red oak Scarlet oak Sugar maple Red maple Pignut hickory American beech

Regeneration Process Established Seedlings Survival and growth of seedlings influenced by mitigating effects of forest canopy on light, temperature, and moisture in the understory Species physiologic characteristics and shade tolerance affect their response to a given understory environment Silvical characteristics of desired species must be considered in conjunction with those of competitor species to assess competitive dynamics of newly established seedlings.

Regeneration Process Established Seedlings and Shade Tolerance Shade tolerant: Not only are they able to establish in the understory, but they are able to persist. This doesn't necessarily mean they are putting on a lot of growth, but they are staying alive Intermediate tolerance: Able to establish in the understory but they cannot survive for extended periods Shade intolerant: May establish in the understory, but normally die out in dense shade When released following extended periods of low light they respond with sluggish growth

Overview of Silvicultural Systems Even-aged vs. Uneven-aged

Common characteristics of even-aged stands Crown canopy is generally limited to a single layer elevated above the ground Diameters vary widely only if shade-tolerant species are present Only old stands have sawtimber sized trees Small trees have short live crown length when compared to total height Largest trees often have 25-40 percent live crown, depending on stand density

Common characteristics of uneven-aged stands Crown canopy is generally comprised of multiple layers and commonly extends close to the ground Diameters range from seedling-sapling to sawtimber sizes, regardless of species present Trees of all diameters have a large live-crown ratio, often as high as 40 to 60 percent in managed stands Tree heights vary with tree diameter, with short ones having small diameters and tall trees having larger diameters

Even-aged vs. Uneven-aged Diameter Distributions Bell-shaped (normal distribution) Reverse J-shaped

Reverse J-shaped does not always indicate a true uneven-aged stand (3+ age classes) Example from the Central Hardwood Region: Two-storied stand with oak-dominated overstory and midstory/understory canopy dominated by shade tolerants like beech and maple.

Silvicultural Systems Even-aged and Uneven-aged systems One age class vs. at least three age classes in a stand (an age class is defined at 20% of the rotation length) Mature trees are removed: Short window of time in even-aged Periodically in uneven-aged Maintains continuous canopy cover

Timeline of practices in an even-aged silvicultural system During the rotation age r, treatments are applied across the entire stand to meet silvicultural objectives that are related to tree age

Concurrent application of individual practices of an uneven-aged silvicultural system during a cutting cycle harvest in a balanced uneven-aged stand Treatments are applied to subunits of the stand depending on conditions within each subunit Each cutting cycle harvest will support similar treatments

Silvicultural Systems Two-aged systems Hybrid of even- and uneven-aged Uses even-aged methodology while maintaining some continual canopy cover Regeneration is accomplished two times over a standard rotation Referred to as: irregular shelterwoods, reserve shelterwoods, two-aged, or leave tree systems

Regeneration Methods Regeneration methods are classified as follows: Even-aged Clearcut Seed-tree Shelterwood Uneven-aged Selection Two-aged (Hybrid)

Common Even-Aged Systems Clearcut Seed Tree Shelterwood

Clearcutting Clearcutting: A method of regenerating an even aged stand in which a new age class develops in a fully exposed microclimate after removal, in a single cutting, of all trees in the previous stand. Regeneration is from natural seeding, direct seeding, planted seedlings, and/or advance reproduction. Silvicultural clearcuts differ from ‘commercial clearcuts’ The first removes all trees, the second only merchantable trees

How Clearcutting Changes the Microenvironment Full sunlight conditions Air and soil temperature near the surface increases Humidity decreases and surface evaporation increases Soil moisture increases because transpiration decreases Precipitation interception decreases, more water reaches the surface Water infiltration and percolation increases; subsurface flow increases Decomposition increases (warmer and wetter), releasing more nutrients Nutrients not taken up or bound to soil leach out of system

Clearcutting Edge effect Moisture increases on a gradient for 30-40 feet into a clearing and then levels off Shade (in the northern hemisphere) is more pronounced on the south edge of the clearing. East to west shade depends on time of day.

Clearcutting Alternate clearcutting arrangements Strip clearcut Block clearcut Patch clearcut Use of alternative methods: Ensure good seed rain Manage shade patterns Protect against wind or ice/snow Improve aesthetics or meet policy-based constraints

Alternative Clearcutting Approaches Block clearcutting All trees are removed in a single operation Size limitations are based on policy and site conditions, not on regeneration constraints

Alternative Clearcutting Approaches Progressive strip clearcut Alternate strip clearcut Strip clearcuts, alternate or otherwise, are best oriented at right angles to prevailing winds. The width of the strips will depend on seedfall distances for the preferred species, wind hazard, and other factors

Alternative Clearcutting Approaches Patch clearcutting Stand is regenerated in a series of clearcuttings made in patches Patch size influences light availability within the patch and should be chosen to match species silvics

Other considerations when using even-aged methods Stream Side Management Zones (SMZ’s) Typically leave an unharvested or partially harvest buffer Legacy trees Travel corridors for wildlife Management of viewscapes Orientation on landscape Aesthetic buffers Alter shapes, adjacencies Avoid straight edges and square corners Limit harvest size

Clearcutting and Site Preparation Site preparation considerations for natural regeneration Some important questions Is it needed or would it be detrimental? Do you need it for a desired species? Does species need a mineral seedbed

Scarification → mineral seedbed Control slash residues Site preparation and clearcutting: Considerations for natural regeneration Scarification → mineral seedbed Control slash residues Partial shade or browse protection afforded by slash Control slash cover to manage seed eating mammals Mechanical or chemical vegetation control Competing vegetation that may inhibit or delay regeneration and effect subsequent growth rates

Advantages Clearcutting with Natural Regeneration Good method for most shade intolerant species Commercially attractive Ease of administration and implementation of regulated forest Clean site eases site preparation Easy machine access eases harvesting Total overstory removal reduces some pests (e.g. dwarf mistletoe) Facilitates regeneration of species with serrotinous cones Precludes blow down Increases herbaceous cover (browse and cover for many wildlife species)

Shortcomings of Clearcutting with Natural Regeneration Problems with dependable seed sources and seedling establishment Seed shortage limits regeneration to light seeded species Poor seed years may lead to regeneration failure or irregular stocking Overstory removal limits within stand seed production following harvest Density and uniformity of a species is difficult to control Issues associated with no high forest cover and high light environment Lack of cover may adversely impact some tree species and may increase competition by herbaceous and shrubs Dense competition may require costly site preparation Cold air drainage may damage reproduction Dry sites may not have sufficient surface moisture to support germination Reduced chance for genetic improvement

Shortcomings of Clearcutting with Natural Regeneration Impacts on soils and hydrology Wet sites may become wetter Wet soils may become unstable on steep slopes Mineral soil exposure may increase soil erosion Increased decomposition rates and potential nutrient leaching Decreased visual aesthetics Increased fuel loading and fire danger Decreased wildlife habitat for some species

Coppice Silviculture

Coppice The term "coppice" is commonly applied to any regeneration arising from sprouts or suckers—typically hardwoods of young to moderate age As a method, it is where regeneration is solely from sprouts or root-suckers Associated with short rotation production of pulpwood or fuelwood Historically associated with charcoal iron production

Coppice Some coppice principles: Low stumps produce better quality sprouts Best sprouts originate from the root collar Sprouting vigor tends to decline with age and size of stems smaller stems, better sprouting Sprouting is most vigorous from dormant season cutting Least vigorous from late spring cutting

Coppice Coppice for energy, bioremediation, environmental cleanup Repeated crops without replanting Vegetative propagation maintains genetic integrity of plantation Increased growth rates allow large volume production on limited land base Short cycle provides quick return on investment Second and third rotation often produces greater biomass in shorter time frame due to multiple stems from sprouts

Coppice The cutting cycle is set by when the MAI intersects PAI

General shortcomings of coppice systems Financial success depends on access to markets for small diameter wood Serve limited set of management goals Frequent entry requires extra caution to minimize soil disturbance and may increase loss of soil nutrients after repeated harvests Coppices susceptible to freezing and browse It takes time to convert from coppice to high forest methods Coppice stands have limited non-market values General shortcomings of short-rotation biomass plantations Require guaranteed markets Require fertile soils with abundant moisture as well as fertilization to maintain critical nutrients May require protection from browse Mechanized systems needed for efficient harvesting require fairly level sites with uniform surfaces and highly trafficable soils.

Coppice with standards: scattered, individual stems allowed to grow on through several coppice cycles

Seed Tree Method Definition: even-aged method retaining widely spaced, uniformly distributed seed bearing trees Reproduction source: from seeds disseminated from trees left after harvest

Seed Tree Method Remaining seed trees may be removed after suitable regeneration is established, but this is not necessary to the method's application Produces an even-aged stand Inherently works well for wind dispersed species, but not hard seeded trees such as oaks and hickories The method removes size constraints on the regeneration area (also shape and orientation issues)

Seed Tree Regeneration Method Regeneration must be established in a short period of years, or else the site will be occupied by other plants Produces early successional conditions on the site (the same as a clearcut): High light levels, high exposure to wind, and extremes in temperature at ground level. Retained trees do not provide enough canopy cover to alter the stands microenvironment in comparison to open condition Density of retained trees that would alter microenvironment is species-specific

Key considerations for the seed tree method Number and spacing of seed trees depends on: Size and species of seed trees Amount of viable seed per tree Percent of seed trees that may survive Percent of seed that produces an established seedling

Considerations for number and spacing: Distance to which seed from desired species can be dispersed to fully stock an area Do not exceed maximum dispersal distances Nature of the seedbed If unfavorable (e.g., heavy duff or sandy topsoil), leave more seed trees (but, better to prepare it by fire or disking) Anticipated competition level Increase the number of seed trees if there will be a high competition level with no or inadequate competition control Above all, know the silvics of species to be retained

Considerations for number and spacing: Light seeded trees can disseminate 2 to 5 times their height Amount of viable seed is usually limiting factor Influence of spacing on pollination alter total seed production Because of year-to-year variation in seed production, it is best to ensure enough reserve trees to restock area in one moderate seed year Usually, 4 to 20 trees per acre retained

8 seed trees per acre in a loblolly-shortleaf pine stand. Arkansas.

Recommended minimum number of seed trees for major southern pines, by DBH class. Number per acre. (Average distance between trees, in ft, shown in parentheses). Will provide value for commercial removal Species DBH (inches) Loblolly Shortleaf Slash Virginia 9 10 12 14 16+ NA 12 (60) 9 (69) 6 (85) 4 (104) 20 (47) 14 (56) 5 (93)

Characteristics of Quality Leave Trees Windfirmness Shallow rooted trees or species with weak wood are not desirable Wide, deep crowns, with high live crown ratio Indicators of vigorously growing trees Dominant or better codominant crown class Seed production is linked to crown area Height Height can influence distance of seed dispersion Age Must be old enough to produce seed

Cutting Strategies – Seed Tree System Preparatory Cut: Optional initial treatment to increase tree vigor and seed production Establishment Cut: Treatment to establish seedling reproduction within the stand Removal Cut: Removal of final overwood to release established seedlings Multiple cuttings can be used and are the same as for a shelterwood except for the density of the establishement cut (i.e. can have a preparatory cut and a removal cut)

Cutting Strategies – Seed Tree System Additional Management Options: Reserve Cutting: Retain seed trees to help make an early thinning of the next stand more economically feasible Not competing removal cut and retaining seed tree through next rotation to meet multiple-use objectives

Seedtree Reserve Cutting Considerations Do economic gains out-weight positives to retention? Damage to established reproduction Is area fully stock with reproduction? Additional site preparation may be necessary if reproduction does not develop If removal is chosen and growth of established reproduction is your primary objective… Implement removal cut when site is fully stocked with seedlings of desired height Level of stocking and seedling height required is species-specific

Site Preparation Considerations for Seed Tree Method Site Conditions: An adequate seedbed and low level of competition are required Some well-distributed exposed soil is desirable, since seeds are small Best case: thin, discontinuous litter, with some mineral soil exposed Dispersed skidding during logging may be sufficient, particularly if the stand has been burned regularly Consider a prescribed burn (for pines) if a heavy litter layer exists Best if before harvest, and not between seedfall and a winter/early spring harvest Mechanical site preparation provides some density/distribution control

Site Preparation Considerations for Seed Tree Method Reduce anticipated competition, if needed Logging operations can damage competition vegetation present at time of harvest Pre- or post-harvest chemical control A burning regime prior to harvest Involves planning many years ahead May be part of your silvicultural system for pines May need to include one or more summer burns just before the anticipated harvest

Advantages to Seed Tree Method: Allows for the control of species and phenotypic characteristics of seed source Seed source abundant and uniformly spaced Provides full sun growth conditions Disadvantages: Exposes seed source to increased risk of premature destruction. Does not provide protection to reproduction on harsh sites Application of Seed Tree Method: Southern Pines: slash, shortleaf, loblolly, sand Hardwoods: yellow-poplar, cottonwood, willow, ash Western Conifers

Ponderosa Pine Shortleaf Pine Slash Pine

Shelterwood System Definition: an even-aged silvicultural system where the reproduction method removes mature community in two or more successive cuttings, temporary leaving some old trees to serve as seed source and to protect the regeneration. Characteristics: Relatively low density stand left of vigorous seed-bearing trees Residual overstory provides sufficient canopy to mitigate sensitive environmental conditions. Especially important on harsh or exposed sites. Residual trees are removed once new reproduction reaches adequate size (i.e. height) and density

Uniform Shelterwood Components Preparatory Cut An optional initial treatment to: Increase tree vigor and seed production in mature stand Remove undesirable seed sources Alter understory environment to promote development of advance reproduction

Uniform Shelterwood Components (continued) 2. Establishment Cut Artificially moves stand into understory reinitiation phase of stand development Promotes seed germination and establishment by creating permanent openings in main canopy Opens the canopy for sufficient light availability to allow regeneration Maintains some control (“shelter”) of understory vegetation Generally, 25-60 ft2/ac residual basal area 30-40 ft2/ac southern pines, 50-60 ft2/ac for oak Should retain dominant, vigorous trees of favorable phenotypes

Uniform Shelterwood Components (continued) 2. Establishment Cut Considerations for success: Appreciably modify the understory environment Retain sufficient residual cover to create conditions that favor target species and seed supply Understory environment must promote seedling development of desired species

Tradeoffs Between Overstory Retention, Light Environment, and Understory Competition *Optimal level is dependant on species, site productivity, and stand history

Uniform Shelterwood Components (continued) 3. Removal Cut A harvest to take away the overwood, so the reproduction can develop uninhibited Conducted only after satisfactory establishment of reproduction based on density, height, and distribution of seedlings Will impact (i.e. damage) established reproduction Remove the overwood before suppression of regeneration

Applicability of the Shelterwood Method Most flexible even-aged method A good method for heavy-seeded species A good method where the seed supply is irregular Obtain rapid increment of high quality wood Increase mast production Maintain aesthetics

Uniform Shelterwood Methods Three-cut Method: Preparatory, Establishment, and Removal cut are used Two-cut Method: Establishment and Removal cut only

Other Types of Shelterwood Systems Irregular or Reserve Shelterwood: Leaves residual overstory for an extended period of time into new rotation – creates two-aged stand Has ecological/aesthetic vs. economic/operational tradeoffs

Other Types of Shelterwood Systems Group Shelterwood: Takes advantage of existing patches of reproduction Removal cuttings done in patches containing reproduction Preparatory and establishment cuts done in areas lacking favorable reproduction

Group Shelterwood

Other Types of Shelterwood Systems Strip Shelterwood: Removal of mature age classes over a series of entries by cutting narrow strips not exceeding the height of adjacent standing trees Residual strips provide seed and partial shade to openings Strip Orientation: Long axis of strips at right angles to prevailing winds to reduce blow-down Alignment in relation to sun’s path influences proportion of direct and diffuse radiation

Strip Shelterwood

Application of the Shelterwood System Upland and bottomland oak forests Eastern pines: red pine, eastern white pine Southern pines: longleaf pine Rocky mountain conifers: western white pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir (Rocky Mountain variety), western larch (on harsh sites). Cascade and coastal range regions: western hemlock/Sitka spruce type and Douglas-fir

Upland Oak Shelterwood

Shelterwood in longleaf pine

Brief Comparison: Clearcut, Seed Tree, and Shelterwood Entire canopy removed in one operation Seedlings grow under open field conditions Seed Tree: Canopy removed in 2 to 3 stand entries Residual trees retained to provide a seed source Seedlings grow under essentially open field conditions Shelterwood: Residual trees retained to provide a seed source and modify understory microenvironment Canopy removed in 2 to 3 stand entries