Children of Immigrants in Unmarried Families: A Double Jeopardy? Yolanda C. Padilla, PhD, LMSW Melissa Radey, Eunjeong Kim, Robert Hummer Population Research Center University of Texas at Austin

Background 1 in every 5 children in the U.S. has at least one foreign born parent Children of immigrants are at greater risk than are the children of US-born parents Children of single parents are at greater risk than the children of two-parent families

Research Question What are the living conditions of young children of immigrants relative to children of US-born parents in married and unmarried families?

Purpose To assess the impact of marital status on immigrant child well-being To examine social and economic hardship faced by children of immigrants at age 1 relative to children of US-born parents To assess access to social support, health services, and social services among immigrant families

Study Design Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, Mother Survey, Year 1 and Baseline Comparative analyses of children of immigrant mothers and children of US-born mothers broken by marital status Weighted data, except in the tables providing sample distribution data (pros and cons of weighting the data are to be considered) “Children of immigrants” are defined as those with foreign-born mothers (all born in the U.S.) Puerto Ricans born in PR are not classified as immigrants

Table 1. Sample Distribution of Place of Origin of Immigrant Mothers Place of OriginTotal Number of Immigrants Proportion of Immigrant Sample Proportion of Total Sample Mexico Central/South America Caribbean Asia Europe Other Total Immigrant Total US-Born Total Sample % % 7.51% % 83.04% 100% Note: “Other” are respondents from the continents of Africa and Australia/Oceania, and from Canada.

Table 2. Sample Distribution of Immigrant Status and Marital Status Marital Status Unmarried MarriedTotal Immigrant StatusN%N%N% Immigrant US-Born Total % % %

Unmarried/married sample split by immigrant status Immigration Status ImmigrantUS-BornTotal Marital StatusN%N%N% Unmarried Married Total % % %

Table 3. Recency of Immigration and Citizenship of Immigrant Mothers by Marital Status Immigrant Mothers UnmarriedMarriedTotal Years in US Less than 5 years Between 5 and 10 years More than 10 years US Citizen24.44*** Significance level between married and unmarried: * = p<.10; ** = p <.05; *** = p <.01

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Education Significance level between married and unmarried within each category of immigrant or US- born: * = p<.10; ** = p <.05; *** = p <.01 Significance level between between immigrant and native: + = p<.10; ++ = p <.05; +++ = p <.01 Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Education (Degree Earned) Less than High School High School Diploma/GED Some College/Trade Sch. Bachelor’s Degree and higher 56.77*** *** Education (Years) Less than 9 yrs. 9-11yrs. High School Diploma/GED 13+ yrs *** ***

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Poverty Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Poverty Level Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Below Poverty (0-99%) Borderline Poverty ( %) Above Poverty (200%+) 60.44*** ***

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Race/Ethnicity Immigrant MothersNative Mothers Race/Ethnicity Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Mexican American Other Hispanic Non-Hispanic White Black Other 48.67*** ***

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Employment Immigrant MothersNative Mothers Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Currently Employed *** Currently Employed Full-time

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Occupation Immigrant MothersNative Mothers Occupation Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Professional/ Technical Admin. Support/ Sales Service Skilled Labor/ Unspecified 4.83*** ***

Table 4. Socioeconomic Status Relationship Status Among Unmarried Mothers

Table 4. Socioeconomic Characteristics Mother’s Age and Number of Children Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers UnmarriedMarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Mother’s Age (Mean) (BA) 25.64*** *** Number of Children in Household (Mean) (BA) ***

Table 5. Mother’s Assets Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Mother’s Assets Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Have Bank Account 42.71*** *** Have Credit Card30.65*** *** Own Car51.31*** *** Own Home6.76*** ***

Table 6. Mother’s Health Behaviors Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Mother’s Health Behaviors UnmarriedMarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Smoking during pregnancy (BA) *** Alcohol use during pregnancy (BA) 4.77** Drug use during pregnancy (BA) *** Ever Breastfeed During Child’s First Year 83.41* ***

Table 7. Maternal and Child Health Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Maternal and Child Health Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Low Birth Weight (BA) 6.72* *** Child Health at Year 1 Excellent/ Very Good Good/ Fair Poor ** Mother’s Health (BA) Excellent/ Very Good Good/ Fair Poor 50.30*** ***

Table 8. Childcare Arrangements Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Childcare Arrangements Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Relative Care *** Living with Child’s Grandmother 18.49*** *** No. of Child Care Arrangements Not using child care more than 10 hrs/wk

Table 9. Material Hardship Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Material Hardship Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Child Has Gone Hungry Mother Has Gone Hungry *** HH Member Could not Afford Needed Medical Care 8.96** ** Could not Afford Utilities 22.63** ***

Table 10. Irregular Work Schedules (If Worked After Child’s Birth) Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Irregular Work Schedule UnmarriedMarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Evening Work Night Work Weekend Work *** Different Times each Week *** Schedule Creates Childcare Problems

Table 11. Availability of Social Support and Neighborhood Stability: Social Support

Table 11. Availability of Social Support and Neighborhood Stability: Neighborhood Stability Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Neighborhood Stability Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal No. of Years in Neighborhood (BA) Less than 1 year 1 year 2 years More than 2 years 35.54*** *** Neighborhood Very Safe or Safe (BA)78.73** ***

Table 12. Access to Health Care and Public Assistance Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Access to Health Care Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal Prenatal Care in First 3 Months of Pregnancy (BA) 82.34* *** Health Insurance (BA) Private Medicaid/HMO Other 13.65*** *** No. of Well Child Visits * ***

Table 12. Access to Health Care and Public Assistance Immigrant MothersUS-Born Mothers Access to Public Assistance Unmarried MarriedTotal Unmarried MarriedTotal TANF Receipt15.22*** *** Food Stamp Receipt 28.02*** *** Rent Assistance 9.20** *** Assistance from Head Start/Early Head Start 5.15*** *** WIC Receipt83.09*** ***

Conclusions Children of unmarried immigrants face a double jeopardy. Although 35% of children of immigrants are living in poverty, they are less likely to receive TANF or food stamps (although US citizens). They have poorer health and are less likely to have private health insurance. In addition, children of immigrants are less likely to live in families with access to social support.

Implications for Policy The study shows that children of immigrants, especially unmarried, are at risk due to their socioeconomic conditions. Recent policy developments under the 1996 Welfare Reform Act exclude immigrant families from access to many health and social services. Parents often lack benefits for their children and, thus, their children run the risk of not getting their needs met.