The modern atom has gone through a few stages of development Dalton’s Atomic Therory – idea of an atom JJ Thompson – 1890 – negative charge (electrons) Earnest Rutherford – positive nucleus (protons) Niels Bohr – 1913 – orbital shells Chadwick – 1932 – neutrons

This is a VERY simplified idea of the atom Nucleus Protons – positive charge – 1.6 x C Neutrons – no charge Diameter order of m Electron “cloud” Electrons – negative charge – 1.6 x C Diameter order of m

The nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the electron orbits. Imagine a pea in the center of a football field with the track being the orbits. Protons and Neutrons have very similar mass. Protons and Neutrons are about 1800 times bigger than electrons.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 1. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. 2. All atoms of a given element are identical. 3. Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or destroyed. 4. Different atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds. 5. In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged.

Deomcritus Atoms Differences in atoms

1. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. 2. All atoms of a given element are identical. 3. Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or destroyed. (This part proven wrong) 4. Different atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds. 5. In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged.

Deomcritus Atoms Differences in atoms Dalton Atoms Sameness Created/destroyed Combination Rearragement

J. J. Thomson – Used cathode ray tube to prove existence of electron. Proposed “Plum Pudding Model” Cathode ray tube Stream of charged particles (electrons). tch?v=YG-Wz-arcaY tch?v=O9Goyscbazk

Plum Pudding J. J. Thompson Plum Pudding Model

Deomcritus Atoms Differences in atoms Dalton Atoms Sameness Created/destroyed Combination Rearragement Thompson Atoms composed of electrons

Gold Foil experiment Used to prove the existence of a positively charged core (Nucleus) Fired alpha particles(2protons and 2 neutrons) into very thin gold foil. The results were “like firing a large artillery shell at a sheet of paper and having the shell come back and hit you!”

What should have happened What DID happened

After performing hundreds of tests and calculations, Rutherford was able to show that the diameter of the nucleus is about 10 5 times smaller than the diameter of the atom

Deomcritus Atoms Differences in atoms Dalton Atoms Sameness Created/destroyed Combination Rearragement Thompson Atoms composed of electrons Rutherford Positively Charged Nucleus

Chadwick Worked with Rutherford. Noted there was energy in the nucleus, but wasn’t the protons. Concluded that neutral particles must also exist in nucleus.

James Chadwick – 1932 Bombarded a beryllium target with alpha particles Alpha particles are helium nucleus Discovered that, carbon was produced with another particle. Concluded this particle had almost identical mass to proton but no charge. Called it a neutron

Deomcritus Atoms Differences in atoms Dalton Atoms Sameness Created/destroyed Combination Rearragement Thompson Atoms composed of electrons Rutherford Positively Charged Nucleus Chadwick Neutrons exist in Nucleus

Three main particles: Proton Positive In nucleus Neutrons Neutral In nucleus Electrons Negative Orbiting the nucleus (not inside)

If Rutherford’s was correct, electrons orbiting would undergo centripetal acceleration. This would mean they would radiate electromagnetic waves. Meaning they would loose energy Meaning the atom would collapse on it’s self

If low-pressure gases are heated or current is passed through them they glow. Different colors correspond to their wavelengths. Visible spectrum 400nm(violet) to 750nm(red)

Gas – slit – slit – prism – viewing screen When single element gases such as hydrogen and helium are excited only specific wave lengths were emitted. These are called emission line spectra

Light – gas vapor – slit – slit – prism – viewing screen If white light is pass through the gas the emerging light will show dark bands called absorption lines. They correspond to the emission lines.

Rutherford’s model didn’t explain why atoms emitted or absorbed only light at certain wavelengths JJ Balmer showed that hydrogen’s four emission lines fit a mathematical formula. This “Balmer series” also show the pattern continued into non-visible ultra-violet and infra-red.

Bohr called these “energy levels” Reasoned that the electrons do not lose energy continuously but instead, lose energy in discrete amounts called “quanta”. He agreed with Rutherford that electrons orbit the nucleus but only certain orbits were allowed.

The electric force between protons and electrons holds electrons in orbit Electron never found between these levels. (“jumps” instantly) Only radiates energy when it “jumps” down. Absorbs energy when it “jumps” up. Total energy stays constant

Bohr explained the emission and absorption line spectra with the idea that electrons absorbed only certain quantity of energy that allowed it to move to a higher orbit or energy level. Each element has its own “finger print”.

Ground state – lowest energy level – smallest possible radius Excited state – when an electron absorbs energy and jumps to a higher energy level. Once an electron jumps back to a lower state it gives off energy in the form of a photon. These photons are the emission spectrum.

The amount jumped correlates to the energy of the photon. Greater the jump means the greater the energy is emitted. Each jump corresponds to a different amount of energy being released. This means we can calculate the frequency and wavelength of light that will be produced.

E = hf E = energy of a quantum h = Planck’s constant (6.63 x Js) f = frequency

An electron in a hydrogen atom drops from energy level E 4 to energy level E 2. What frequency of the emitted photon, and which line line in the emission spectrum corresponds to this event?

First find the amount of energy lost E lost = E 4 – E 2 E lost = (-0.85eV) – (-3.40eV) E lost = 2.55 eV

Second, convert eV into J. 1eV = 1.6 x J Answer: 4.08 x J

Third use Planck’s equations to find the frequency. E = hf f = 6.15 x Hz

Fourth decide which line corresponds to this even. Answer: Green light v = f λ

Practice C, pg 769 in book, #2 – 5

Definitions Nucleon – any of the constituents of a nucleus. Protons and neutrons. Atomic Number – The number of protons in the nucleus. Nucleon Number – The number of nucleons in the nucleus. AKA the mass number. (protons + neutrons) Isotope – Nuclei which contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Nuclide – the nucleus of an atom. The nuclides of isotopes are different, even though they are the same element.

Atomic Number (proton number), Z How many protons there are. This is what defines the element. Ex. Hydrogen Z =1, Oxygen Z = 8 Carbon Z = 6 Nucleon Number (mass number), A How many nucleons there are. Protons + neutrons Number of neutrons, N Mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons A = Z + N

Standard notation is: A over Z in front of element(X) *****Draw on board***** Isotopes More evidence for neutrons is the existence of isotopes. When nuclei of the same element have different numbers of neutrons. Carbon has 6 isotopes: Carbon-11, Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14, Carbon-15, Carbon-16. All have 6 protons but each has different number of neutrons.

The different isotopes don’t exist in nature in equal amounts. Carbon: C – 12 is most abundant (98.9%) C – 13 is next (1.1%) This is where atomic mass comes from. It’s the weighted average mass of all the different isotopes.

Nuclei of different atoms are known as nuclides. Ex. C – 12, C – 14 Both are carbon but different isotopes Their nuclei have different numbers of neutrons. These are different nuclides.

How do like charge (protons), stay stuck together? We already know that like charges repel each other. We have also seen that they are stronger than gravitational forces. Strong Force – The force that binds the nucleus together. It is an attractive force that acts between all nucleons. Short – range interactions only (up to m)

Define the term unified atomic mass unit Apply the Einstein mass-energy equivalence relationship Define the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per nucleon Solve problems involving mass defect and binding energy.

Because the mass of an atom is so small a new unit was created. Some times called “Atomic mass unit” 1 u = x kg 12u = one atom of carbon-12

Mass of a nucleus is sometimes expressed in terms of rest energy. A particle has a certain amount of energy associated with its mass. Relationship between rest energy and mass: E R = mc 2

It doesn’t always happen with nuclear processes. Some times mass is converted or lost in the form of energy. 1u = MeV

So that means that one proton IS 938.3MeV of energy. Mass is energy, energy is mass THEY ARE THE SAME THING!!! AHHHHHH!!!!!! Check out the table

What happens when you place two negative charged particles next to each other? What happens when you place two positively charged particles next to each other?

So why doesn’t a nucleus explode? It shouldn’t stay together. Strong Force Attractive force Independent of electric charge Very short range Neutrons!!! Spread the protons apart to help balance electrical repulsion and strong attraction

Particles in a stable nuclease need an input of energy to break the strong nuclear force. When to unbound particles come together energy is released. (think nuclear reactions) Turns out these quantities of energy are the same. Called the binding energy Binding energy is the energy it takes to hold the atom together. Equal to the

Recall that mass is energy. Carbon – 12 Atom of carbon – lighter, less rest energy Constituent parts of – heavier, more rest energy What happen to that little bit of matter? It is used as the energy to bind together the atom. The difference in the two masses is known as mass defect (∆m)

Binding energy = mass defect x (speed of light) 2 E bind = ∆m c 2 E = mc 2

The nucleus of the deuterium atom, called deuteron, consists of a proton and a neutron. Given that the atomic mass of deuterium is u, calculate the deuteron’s binding energy in MeV. Answer: 2.224MeV

If the phosphorus has a mass of u, then what is the binding energy that holds the nucleus together in MeV? Answer:

Practice A, pg 795 in book, #1,3-4 Answers: 1) MeV, MeV 2) 0.764MeV 3) 7.933MeV 4) MeV/nucleon