Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosophy.co.uk Deception and lies Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosophy.co.uk

Utilitarianism Simple act utilitarianism: if telling a lie creates more happiness than telling the truth (or keeping silent), then telling a lie is morally right Mill: wider consequences Being truthful is of great benefit, and society, civilization and virtue only works on the assumption of truthfulness Hence weakening our own truthfulness or another’s trust is very serious Therefore, lying for convenience is wrong

Utilitarianism Mill: Lying can be permissible, e.g. when it is the only way to withhold information from someone who intends harm Rule utilitarianism: ‘never lie’ will not maximize happiness But it is hard to formalize the best rule

Kant Lying violates the Categorical Imperative: Deceiving another requires that they believe us, which requires that deceiving is not universal Kant argues that lying is always wrong The axe murderer But one’s maxim might be more specific, and so pass the Categorical Imperative, e.g. ‘lie to save a life’ But could we still deceive the axe murderer?

Kant If we lie, we are responsible for the consequences of our lie But aren’t we equally responsible for the consequences of doing our duty? Lying violates the formula of humanity The deceived person can’t freely choose whether to adopt our end Kant seems to allow that lying is a ‘weapon of defence’ against someone who intends harm

Aristotle ‘falsehood is in itself mean and culpable, and truth noble and worthy of praise’ Does this imply that lying has no mean, it is already a vice? Alternatively, truth is a final end – but that doesn’t mean that we should always pursue it (cp. Pleasure)

Aristotle Aristotle mainly discusses boastfulness – lying about oneself This is ‘futile rather than bad’ It can be done for better or worse motives (e.g. to gain reputation vs. gain money) This indicates that lying is never virtuous But if there are few rules in ethics, it is unlikely that lying is always wrong If we lie, we must do so at the right time, with the right motive, about the right truths, and in the right way