Chapter 7 Attitudes Consumer Behavior By Michael R. Solomon Buying, Having, and Being Sixth Edition

Opening Vignette: Soccer How do Jan and Terri differ in their attitudes toward soccer? Jan and Nancy are both soccer fans. How are they different? Which one of the three is the most likely target for ads promoting soccer? Is Nancy likely to convert to become a soccer fan?

The Power of Attitudes Attitude: A lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, advertisements, or issues Anything toward which one has an attitude is called an object (Ao). Attitudes are lasting because they tend to endure over time.

The Functions of Attitudes Functional Theory of Attitudes: Attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person (i.e., they are determined by a person’s motives) Katz’s Attitude Functions Utilitarian function Value-expressive function Ego-defensive function Knowledge function

Addressing Smoking Attitudes This Norwegian ad addresses young people’s smoking attitudes by arousing strong negative feelings. The ad reads (left panel) “Smokers are more sociable than others.” (Right panel): “While it lasts.”

The ABC Model of Attitudes Affect: The way a consumer feels about an attitude object Behavior: Involves the person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object Cognition: The beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object Hierarchy of Effects: A fixed sequence of steps that occur en route to an attitude

Attitudes as ABC ATTITUDE BASED ON : affect behavior beliefs affect cognitive information processing affect behavior beliefs behavioral learning process affect beliefs behavior hedonic consumption beliefs behavior affect

Three Hierarchies of Effects Figure 7.1

Attitude Hierarchies The Standard Learning Hierarchy: Consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving process The Low-Involvement Hierarchy: Consumer does not have strong initial preference Consumer acts on limited knowledge Consumer forms an evaluation only after product trial The Experiential Hierarchy: Consumers act on the basis of their emotional reactions

Experiential Hierarchy Emotional Contagion: Emotions expressed by the communicator of a marketing message affect the attitude toward the product Cognitive-Affective Model: Argues that an affective judgment is the last step in a series of cognitive processes Independence Hypothesis: Takes the position that affect and cognition involve two separate, independent systems

Smith and Wollensky This ad for New York’s famous Smith & Wollensky restaurant emphasizes that marketers and others associated with a product or service are often more involved with it than are their consumers.

Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story Attitude Toward the Advertisement (Aad): A predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular advertising stimulus during a particular exposure occasion Ads Have Feelings Too: Three emotional dimensions: Pleasure, arousal, and intimidation Specific types of feelings that can be generated by an ad Upbeat feelings: Amused, delighted, playful Warm feelings: Affectionate, contemplative, hopeful Negative feelings: Critical, defiant, offended

Discussion Question Sexually suggestive scenes like the one depicted in this ad for Union Bay clothing can generate feelings that affect brand attitudes. What specific types of feelings or responses can this type of advertisement elicit? How will this scene affect the attitude toward the ad?

Forming Attitudes Not All Attitudes are Created Equal: Levels of Commitment to an Attitude: The degree of commitment is related to the level of involvement with an attitude object Compliance Identification Internalization The Consistency Principle: Principle of Cognitive Consistency: Consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings or behaviors to be consistent with other experiences

Levels of Attitudinal Commitment By describing Cadillac as “my company,” the woman in this ad exhibits a high level of attitudinal commitment to her employer.

Forming Attitudes (cont.) Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony among Attitudes: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: When a person is confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, he or she will take action to reduce the dissonance by changing an attitude or modifying a behavior. Self-Perception Theory: People maintain consistency by inferring that they must maintain a positive attitude toward a product they have bought or consumed Foot-in-the-door technique: Sales strategy based on the observation that consumers will comply with a request if they have first agreed to comply with a smaller request

Attitudinal Commitment This ad for a magazine illustrates that consumers often distort information so that it fits with what they already believe or think they know.

Social Judgment Theory People assimilate new information about Ao’s based on what they already know or feel. Attitudes of Acceptance and Rejection: People differ in the information they find acceptable or unacceptable. Assimilation effect: Messages that fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with one’s position than they actually are Contrast effect: Messages falling within the latitude of rejection tend to be seen as being farther from one’s position than they actually are

Balance Theory Triad: Unit relation: Sentiment relation: An attitude structure consisting of three elements (1) A person and his/her perceptions of (2) an attitude object, and (3) some other person or object Unit relation: An element is seen as belonging to or being part of the other Sentiment relation: Two elements are linked because one has expressed a preference for the other Marketing Applications of Balance Theory Celebrity endorsements

Alternative Routes to Restoring Balance in a Triad Figure 7.2

Discussion Question Consumer researchers understand that consumers like to “bask in the reflected glory” of successful college athletic programs by wearing merchandise adorned with logos like the ones on the right. How do the different attitude theories explain this consumer phenomenon?

Attitude Models Attitude Models: Multiattribute Models: Specify the different elements that might work together to influence people’s evaluations of Ao’s Multiattribute Models: Model that assumes a consumer’s Ao will depend on the beliefs he or she has about several attributes toward the object Multiattribute Models Specify 3 Elements: Attributes Beliefs Importance Weights

Attitude Models Choosing products: Goal of Lifestyle Marketing: We often choose products because of their association with a certain lifestyle. Goal of Lifestyle Marketing: To allow consumers to pursue their chosen ways to enjoy life and express their social identities. Adopting Lifestyle Marketing: Implies that we must look at patterns of behavior to understand consumers

The Fishbein Model (Theory of Planned Behavior) Measures 3 components of attitude: (1) Salient Beliefs (2) Object-attribute linkages (3) Evaluation Assumptions of the Fishbein Model: Ability to specify all relevant choice attributes Identification, weight, and summing of attributes Affect referral: A process by which a consumer’s overall attitude is formed by an overall affective response

The Fishbein Equation Aijk = ΣβijkIik The Basic Formula: Aijk = ΣβijkIik Where: i = attribute j = brand k = consumer I = the importance weight given attribute I by consumer k β = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute I A = a particular consumer’s (k’s) attitude score for brand j

Multi Attribute Models: TPB Fishbein Ajzen model (theory of planned behaviour) Control beliefs Perceived behavioural control (PC) Behaviour Beliefs (b) * Outcome evaluation (e) Normative beliefs (n) * Motivation to comply (mc) Attitude to Behaviour (AB) Subjective Norm (SN) Behavioural Intention (BI) Behaviour

Theory of Planned Behavior attitude to quitting smoking 0.44 intention to quit smoking attempts to quit smoking 0.32 0.35 confidence about quitting smoking 0.33 previous attempts at quitting smoking 0.09 Co-efficients relating attitude, confidence and previous attempts to intention and later quitting smoking Sutton et al 1986, in East

The Basic Multiattribute Model

Strategic Applications of the Multiattribute Model Capitalize on Relative Advantage Strengthen Perceived Product/Attribute Linkages Add a New Attribute Influence Competitors’ Ratings

Using Attitudes to Predict Behavior In many cases, knowledge of a person’s attitude is not a very good predictor of behavior Questionable link between attitude and behavior Consumers love a commercial, but don’t buy the product The Extended Fishbein Model Called the Theory of Reasoned Action Contains several important additions to the original, which improve its ability to predict behavior

The Theory of Reasoned Action Intentions Versus Behavior Social Pressure: Subjective Norm (SN) Normative Belief (NB): Belief that others believe an action should or should not be taken Motivation to Comply (MC): Degree to which consumers take into account anticipated reactions Attitude Toward Buying: Attitude toward the act of buying (Aact): How someone feels about buying due to the perceived consequences of a purchase

Obstacles to Predicting Behavior in the Theory of Reasoned Action Model is misapplied Other obstacles: Model deals with actual behavior, not outcomes Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control The assumption of behavior as intentional may be invalid in some cases Attitude measures don’t correspond to the behavior they are supposed to predict Too large a time frame between attitude measure and behavior measure Attitude accessibility perspective: Behavior is a function of the person’s immediate perceptions of the Ao

Cultural Roadblocks to the Theory of Reasoned Action Roadblocks that diminish the universality of the theory Model was designed to predict voluntary acts The relative impact of subject norms varies across cultures The model assumes that consumers are actively thinking ahead and planning behaviors A consumer that forms an intention claims that he or she is in control of his or her actions

Trying to Consume Theory of Trying to Consume States that the criterion of behavior in the reasoned action model should be replaced with trying to reach a goal Sample issues that might be addressed: Past frequency Recency Beliefs Evaluations of consequences The process Expectations of success and failure Subjective norms toward trying

Theory of Trying (TT) Figure 7.3

Tracking Attitudes over Time Attitude-tracking program: An single-attitude survey is a snapshot in time A program allows researchers to analyze attitude trends during an extended period of time Ongoing Tracking Studies Attitude tracking involves administration of a survey at regular intervals (e.g. Gallup Poll, Yankelovich Monitor) This activity is valuable for making strategic decisions

Attitude Changes over Time Changes to Look for over Time: Changes in different age groups: Attitudes change with age Historical effects Scenarios about the future: Consumers tracked in terms of future plans, confidence in economy, and so on Identification of change agents: Social phenomena can alter people’s attitudes

Changing Attitudes Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who agree “We must take radical action to cut down on how we use our cars.” Figure 7.4

Attitude Measurements playing the National Lottery is if I play the National Lottery I will win (belief - perceived likelihood) winning the National Lottery is (evaluation outcome) bad -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 good unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely bad -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 good

Attitude Measurements I intend to play the National Lottery next week (behavioral intention) my friends this I should play the National Lottery (normative belief) I do what my friend think I should do (motivation to comply) unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely

Attitude Measurements I can play the National Lottery more easily if I understand the system (action) I understand the system for playing the National Lottery (control) unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely unlikely -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 likely