 Gambling = activity in which two or more people agree to take part. The stake is paid by the loser to the winner. The outcome is uncertain but is usually due to chance.  Problem gambling = mild to moderate problems associated with gambling  Pathological gambling = diagnosable psychiatric disorder reserved for extreme end of the continuum of gambling behaviour

 Onset in adolescence for men and later in adulthood for women  68% of the British population has participated in gambling activity  6% use the internet to gamble  0.6% meet criteria for problem gambling (284,000 adults)

 Positive reward theory  Anticipation of gambling might cause the body to increase stress response (adrenaline rush)  Burst of energy associated with adrenaline production has been found to be addictive  Some people might be genetically predisposed to have a stronger reward response

 Zack & Poulos (2007): found that dopamine enhances the rewarding effects of gambling.

 Comings et al. (1996) found that pathological gamblers are more likely to carry a gene called D2A1 than non-gamblers  Bennett (2006) reports that twin studies indicate that genetic factors are more involved with pathological gambling than environmental factors

 Roy et al (2004) found higher noradrenaline and dopamine levels in chronic blackjack gamblers and higher dopamine levels in chronic casino gamblers  This shows pronounced activation of the HPA axis and sympathoadrenergic system  This suggests that biological neuroendocrine disturbances account for dependency

 Anholt et al (2003) found that problem gamblers had obsessive-compulsive thinking

 Cummings et al (1980): individuals suffering with an addiction were more likely to relapse when they experienced negative emotion.  35% of relapses followed a negative mood,  16% followed some form of interpersonal conflict  20% were attributed to social pressure The Self-Medication Model

 Griffiths (1994) found that regular players seemed capable of gambling without attending to what they were doing (on autopilot): they were not thinking about it.  This suggests that cognitive processes were not a major role in the maintenance of their behaviour. Rational Choice Theory

 Griffiths (1994) compared 30 regular gamblers with 30 non regular gamblers and measured their verbalisations as they played a fruit machine.  Regular gamblers  Believed they were more skilful than they actually were  were more likely to make irrational verbalisations during play (e.g. ‘putting only a quid in bluffs the machine’)  tended to treat the machine as if it were a person (e.g. ‘this fruity is not in a good mood’).

 They also explained away their losses by seeing ‘near misses’ as ‘near wins’. Something which justified their continuation (they are nearly winning not losing!) = IRRATIONAL THINKING

 Schemas are essentially ‘mental representations’ that allow us to picture, visualize etc. all manner of situations, events, objects.  Heuristics (like a schema or stereotype) is a mental shortcut that allows us to make judgments and decisions, with minimal thinking effort involved.

 Gambler’s fallacy: the idea that random events equal themselves out over time.  Eg. “I haven’t had a win for three months so it’s my turn soon.”  With the lottery, the idea that a number hasn’t been drawn for twelve weeks so it must come up this time.

 Availability bias: The notion that because something has happened in the past it will occur again in the future.  Big winners on the lottery get oodles of coverage leading us to think it’s a common occurrence and hence likely to happen to us too. In the early days of the lottery it soon became apparent that the number 44 was being drawn more than the others. Result, everyone was picking the number 44!

 Illusion of control: gamblers tend to over-estimate the amount of control they have.  The illusion of control is more likely with fruit machines which give the impression of control with features such as ‘nudge’ and ‘hold’ even though in practice very little skill is involved.

 As well as heuristics there is also a tendency by many gamblers to make it personal.  Gamblers will switch from one bandit to another, claiming the first one doesn’t like them.  Some think they can con the machine by only putting in £1 at the outset.

 65% of eligible British population played the National Lottery when it was introduced in 1994  This shows that exposure increases chances of gambling

 Evolutionary advantage of learning from occasional reinforcement:  Worlds is unpredictable so…  Adaptive behaviour will work on average (not always!)

 Shinohara et al. (1995) found raised levels of dopamine and noradrenaline…  SOCIAL GAMBLERS: when gambling  PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS: in anticipation of gambling and in response to gambling paraphernalia