Urban Transportation and PM Particulate Matter include small airborne particles known to correlate positively with increased morbidity and mortality. This presentation explores risk assessment and characterization in the development of surface roads and alternative energy sources.

What is PM? A general term used to describe discrete particle that come from fires, plant pollens and many human activities such as agriculture, combustion, transportation etc… National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) has focused on PM 2.5 particles, which have diameters less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers (um)

Why all of this attention? Morbidity and Mortality Studies Time-series studies have demonstrated that an increase in daily PM10 levels is associated with an increase, on the day concerned and the following day, in mortality due to all causes other than accidents in Asia, North America, South America, Australia and Europe [14, 15]. Source: L. FILLEUL, Urban particulate atmospheric pollution: from Epidemiology to impact on public health, Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, Paris 2003 Morbidity Studies (100+) Elderly and children are at high risk to adverse health impacts such as: Respiratory impacts including Chronic Bronchitis (CB), Chronic Asthma, Pneumonia and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Abbey et al (1993) found statistically significant relationships between ambient concentrations of Total Suspended Particles (TSP) and ozone with several respiratory ailments Schwartz et. al (1995); After controlling for age, race, sex, and cigarette smoking, annual average total suspended particulate concentrations (TSP) were associated with increased risk of chronic bronchitis (odds ratio (OR) = 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) ) and of a respiratory diagnosis by the examining physician (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = ). The odds ratios are for a 10 micrograms/m3 increase in TSP. Cost and Benefit Inclusion of limited child-specific data on hospitalizations, emergency department visits, school absences, and low birth weight could be expected to add $1–2 billion (1990 US$) to the $8 billion in health benefits currently estimated to result from decreased morbidity, and $600 million to the $100 billion estimated to result from decreased mortality. Source: Fautman et. al. Institute for Risk Analysis and Risk Communication, UW

EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT & SURFACE TRANSPORTATION Experimental evidence indicates that airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposures linked to diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) have proinflammatory effects on airways, but there is insufficient supporting evidence from the occupational literature of effects of DEPs on asthma or lung function. In contrast, nonoccupational epidemiologic studies have frequently shown associations between allergic responses or asthma with exposures to ambient air pollutant mixtures with PAH components, including black smoke, high home or school traffic density (particularly truck traffic), and environmental tobacco smoke. Source: Ralph J. Delfino, Epidemiologic Evidence for Asthma and Exposure to Air Toxics: Linkages between Occupational, Indoor, and Community Air Pollution Research, Epidemiology Division, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California USA, August 2002

Studies

Where is the risk? In the United States nearly 600,000 school buses transport 24 million students to school daily. More than 99% of U.S. school buses are powered by diesel fuel. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that 4.5 million U.S. children have asthma. Fine particulate concentrations (PM2.5) measured on buses in a Connecticut study were often 5-10 times higher than average levels measured at the 13 fixed-site PM2.5 monitoring. Is this the norm? Source: John Wargo, Ph.D.,Children’s Exposure to Diesel Exhaust on School Buses, YALE UNIVERSITY, February 2002

Current Status PM Standards are under review Criteria document (EPA’s exhaustive compilation of the latest scientific knowledge Staff Paper – translation of info into policy

Non-attainment /NA Does not meet the National Ambient air quality standard if the 3 year average PM2.5 is not less than or equal to 15.0 ug/m3. NAAQS year – states and tribes make recommendations for designated NA TEA-21/1998 – established a requirement that 3 years of data is needed for designations NA areas must create State Implementation Plans (SIP) 2004/ EPA is developing a PM2.5 implementation rule

Mechanism of Action During asthma attacks, both inflammatory and structural cells of the respiratory tract are activated. Activated cells include T cells, mast cells, eosinophils, macrophages, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and bronchial smooth muscle cells. By releasing proinflammatory and cytotoxic mediators and cytokines, these cells are all involved in a cascade that leads to the acute and chronic symptoms of asthma. Source: R. Pandya et. al., Diesel Exhaust and Asthma: Hypotheses and Molecular Mechanism of Action, 2002

What does this mean for transportation? Transportation-Oriented Development/ Land-use 1)Communities are refusing to allow highways near schools 2)Can highways near Senior Citizen centers be impacted next? 3)What risks originate at truck stops and weight stations? 4)Is their DOT, state or manufacturer liability?

THE DUTCH EXAMPLE Dutch freeway studies Investigated children living close to freeways utilized detailed traffic count data to separate trucks (> 5.1 m) from cars (< 5.1 m) 1st study at 6 locations, 2nd study at 24 locations

Design of 2nd Dutch Freeway Study Design of 2nd Dutch Freeway Study 1) 24 schools, located near freeways 2) Varying monitoring of PM2.5, BS, NO2 3) Symptoms, sensitisation, lung function, bronchial hyperresponsiveness 4) Measurements conducted May ‘97-June ‘98 Source: Janssen, Atmosf Environ 2001;35:3875 Rijnders, EHP 2001;109 s3:411

Distance of school to freeway and traffic density Distance to freeway (m): 209/ ( ) Light (car) traffic/day 89,544 / (30, ,656) Heavy (truck) traffic/day 13,146/ (5, ,326)

‘Best Science’ A review of diesel exhaust’s PM has begun but the ‘best science’ is in a state of flux. As transportation planners what is our responsibility? Take for example - Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether (Oxygenated Motor Vehicle Fuels) used in non-compliance areas as a result of the 1990 Clean Air Act – MTBE use has resulted in a series of health complaints. Be prepared!