Logical Operators Java provides two binary logical operators (&& and ||) that are used to combine boolean expressions. Java also provides one unary (!) logical operator to reverse the truth of a boolean expression.

Logical Operators Operator Meaning Effect && AND Connects two boolean expressions into one. Both expressions must be true for the overall expression to be true. || OR Connects two boolean expressions into one. One or both expressions must be true for the overall expression to be true. It is only necessary for one to be true, and it does not matter which one. ! NOT The ! operator reverses the truth of a boolean expression. If it is applied to an expression that is true, the operator returns false. If it is applied to an expression that is false, the operator returns true.

The && Operator The logical AND operator (&&) takes two operands that must both be boolean expressions. The resulting combined expression is true iff (if and only if) both operands are true. Expression 1 Expression 2 Expression1 && Expression2 true false

The || Operator The logical OR operator (||) takes two operands that must both be boolean expressions. The resulting combined expression is false iff (if and only if) both operands are false. Expression 1 Expression 2 Expression1 || Expression2 true false

The ! Operator The ! operator performs a logical NOT operation. If an expression is true, !expression will be false. if (!(temperature > 100)) System.out.println(“Below the maximum temperature."); If temperature > 100 evaluates to false, then the output statement will be run. Expression 1 !Expression1 true false

Short Circuiting Logical AND and logical OR operations perform short-circuit evaluation of expressions. Logical AND will evaluate to false as soon as it sees that one of its operands is a false expression. Logical OR will evaluate to true as soon as it sees that one of its operands is a true expression.

Order of Precedence The ! operator has a higher order of precedence than the && and || operators. The && and || operators have a lower precedence than relational operators like < and >. Parenthesis can be used to force the precedence to be changed.

Order of Precedence Order of Precedence Operators Description 1 (unary negation) ! Unary negation, logical NOT 2 * / % Multiplication, Division, Modulus 3 + - Addition, Subtraction 4 < > <= >= Less-than, Greater-than, Less-than or equal to, Greater-than or equal to 5 == != Is equal to, Is not equal to 6 && Logical AND 7 || Logical NOT 8 = += -= *= /= %= Assignment and combined assignment operators.

Comparing String Objects In most cases, you cannot use the relational operators to compare two String objects. Reference variables contain the address of the object they represent. Unless the references point to the same object, the relational operators will not return true.

Ignoring Case in String Comparisons In the String class the equals and compareTo methods are case sensitive. In order to compare two String objects that might have different case, use: equalsIgnoreCase, or compareToIgnoreCase

Variable Scope In Java, a local variable does not have to be declared at the beginning of the method. The scope of a local variable begins at the point it is declared and terminates at the end of the method. When a program enters a section of code where a variable has scope, that variable has come into scope, which means the variable is visible to the program.

The Conditional Operator The conditional operator is a ternary (three operand) operator. The conditional operator allows a programmer to write a simple if-else type statement. The format of the operators is: expression1 ? expression2 : expression3 The conditional operator can also return a value.

The Conditional Operator The conditional operator can be used as a shortened if-else statement: x > y ? z = 10 : z = 5; This line is functionally equivalent to: if(x > y) z = 10; else z = 5;

The Conditional Operator Many times, the conditional operator is used to supply a value. number = x > y ? 10 : 5; This is functionally equivalent to: if(x > y) number = 10; else number = 5;

The switch Statement The if-else statements allow the programmer to make true / false branches. The switch statement allows the programmer to use an ordinal value to determine how a program will branch. The switch statement can evaluate an integer type or character type variable and make decisions based on the value.

The switch Statement The switch statement takes the form: switch (SwitchExpression) { case CaseExpression: // place one or more statements here break; // case statements may be repeated //as many times as necessary default: }

The switch Statement The switch statement takes an ordinal value (byte, short, int, long, char) as the SwitchExpression. switch (SwitchExpression) { … } The switch statement will evaluate the expression. If there is an associated case statement that matches that value, program execution will be transferred to that case statement.

The switch Statement Each case statement will have a corresponding CaseExpression that must be unique. case CaseExpression: // place one or more statements here break; If the SwitchExpression matches the CaseExpression, the Java statements between the colon and the break statement will be executed.

The switch Case The break statement ends the case statement. The break statement is optional. If a case does not contain a break, then program execution continues into the next case. The default case is optional and will be executed if no CaseExpression matches the SwitchExpression.

The Increment and Decrement Operators There are numerous times where a variable must simply be incremented or decremented. number = number + 1; number = number – 1; Java provide shortened ways to increment and decrement a variable’s value. Using the ++ or – unary operators, this task can be completed quickly. number++; or ++number; number--; or --number;

Differences Between Prefix and Postfix When an increment or decrement are the only operations in a statement, there is no difference between prefix and postfix notation. When used in an expression: prefix notation indicates that the variable will be incremented or decremented prior to the rest of the equation being evaluated. postfix notation indicates that the variable will be incremented or decremented after the rest of the equation has been evaluated.

The while Loop Java provides three different looping structures. The while loop has the form: while(condition){ statements; } While the condition is true, the statements will execute repeatedly. The while loop is a pretest loop, which means that it will test the value of the condition prior to executing the loop.

The while Loop Care must be taken to set the condition to false somewhere in the loop so the loop will end. Loops that do not end are called infinite loops. A while loop executes 0 or more times since if the condition is false, the loop will not execute.

The while loop Flowchart statement(s) true boolean expression? false

Infinite Loops In order for a while loop to end, the condition must become false. { int x = 20; while(x > 0){ System.out.println(“x is greater than 0”); } The variable x never gets decremented so it will always be greater than 0.

Infinite Loops In order for a while loop to end, the condition must become false. { int x = 20; while(x > 0){ System.out.println(“x is greater than 0”); x--; } The variable x never gets decremented so it will always be greater than 0. Adding the x-- above fixes the problem.

Block Statements in Loops Although not required for single statement while loops, convention holds that while loops always use curly braces. Curly braces are required to enclose block statement while loops. (like block if statements) while(condition){ single or block statements; }

The while Loop for Input Validation Input validation is the process of ensuring that user input is valid. System.out.print("Enter a number in the " + "range of 1 through 100: "); number = Keyboard.readInt(); // Validate the input. while (number < 1 || number > 100) { System.out.println("That number is invalid."); }

The do-while Loop The do-while loop is a post-test loop, which means it will execute the loop prior to testing the condition. The do-while loop, more commonly called a do loop, takes the form: do{ statements }while(condition);

The do-while Loop Flowchart statement(s) true boolean expression? false

The for Loop The for loop is a specialized form of the while loop, meaning it is a pre-test loop. The for loop allows the programmer to initialize a control variable, test a condition, and modify the control variable all in one line of code. The for loop takes the form: for(initialization; test; update) { loop statements; }

The for Loop Flowchart statement(s) true boolean expression? false update

The Sections of the for Loop The initialization section of the for loop allows the loop to initialize its own control variable. The test section of the for statement acts in the same manner as the condition section of a while loop. The update section of the for loop is the last thing to execute at the end of each loop.

The for Loop Initialization The initialization section of a for loop is optional; however, it is usually provided. Typically, for loops initialize a counting variable that will be tested by the test section of the loop and updated by the update section. The initialization section can initialize multiple variables. Variables declared in this section have scope only for the for loop.

The Update Expression The update expression is usually used to increment or decrement the counting variable(s) declared in the initialization section of the for loop. The update section of the loop executes last in the loop. The update section may update multiple variables. Each variable updated is executed as if it were on a line by itself.

Modifying The Control Variable It is bad programming style to update the control variable of a for loop within the body of the loop. The update section should be used to update the control variable. Updating the control variable in the for loop body leads to hard to maintain code and difficult debugging.

Multiple Initializations and Updates The for loop may initialize and update multiple variables. for(int i = 5, int j = 0; i < 10 || j < 20; i++, j+=2){ loop statements; } Note that the only parts of a for loop that are mandatory are the semicolons. for(;;){ }//infinite loop. If left out, the test section defaults to true.

Running Totals Loops allow the program to keep running totals while evaluating data. Imagine needing to keep a running total of user input.

Sentinel Values Sometimes (usually) the end point of input data is not known. A sentinel value can be used to notify the program to stop acquiring input. If it is a user input, the user could be prompted to input data that is not normally in the input data range (i.e. –1 where normal input would be positive.) Programs that get file input typically use the end-of-file marker to stop acquiring input data.

Nested Loops Like if statements, loops can be nested. If a loop is nested, the inner loop will execute all of its iterations for each time the outer loop executes once. for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) for(int j = 0; j < 10; j++) loop statements; The loop statements in this example will execute 100 times.

The break and continue Statements The break statement can be used to abnormally terminate a loop. The use of the break statement in loops bypasses the normal mechanisms and makes the code hard to read and maintain. It is considered bad form to use the break statement in this manner.

The continue Statement The continue statement will cause the currently executing iteration of a loop to terminate and the next iteration will begin. The continue statement will cause the evaluation of the condition in while and for loops. The update statement will also be executed in for loops. Like the break statement, the continue statement should be avoided because it makes the code hard to read and debug.

Deciding Which Loops to Use The while loop: Pretest loop Use it where you do not want the statements to execute if the condition is false in the beginning. The do-while loop: Post-test loop Use it where you want the statements to execute at least one time. The for loop: Use it where there is some type of counting variable that can be evaluated.