Concept 23.3: Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change: Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Natural Selection Differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions For example, an allele that confers resistance to DDT increased in frequency after DDT was used widely in agriculture © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Genetic Drift The smaller a sample, the greater the chance of deviation from a predicted result Genetic drift describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next (chance) Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Generation 1 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3 CRCR Figure 23.9-1 CRCR CRCR CRCW CWCW CRCR CRCW CRCR CRCW Figure 23.9 Genetic drift. CRCR CRCW Generation 1 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3

5 plants leave off- spring Figure 23.9-2 5 plants leave off- spring CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCR CRCW CRCW CWCW CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCW CWCW CRCR Figure 23.9 Genetic drift. CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCW Generation 1 Generation 2 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 p = 0.5 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3 q = 0.5

5 plants leave off- spring 2 plants leave off- spring Figure 23.9-3 5 plants leave off- spring 2 plants leave off- spring CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCR CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCR CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCR CRCR CRCW CWCW CRCR CRCR Figure 23.9 Genetic drift. CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCR Generation 1 Generation 2 Generation 3 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 p = 0.5 p = 1.0 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3 q = 0.5 q = 0.0

The Founder Effect The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the larger parent population © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Bottleneck Effect sudden reduction in population size due to a change in the environment New gene pool may not reflect original If the population remains small, it may be further affected by genetic drift © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Original population Bottlenecking event Figure 23.10-2 Figure 23.10 The bottleneck effect. Original population Bottlenecking event

Original population Bottlenecking event Surviving population Figure 23.10-3 Figure 23.10 The bottleneck effect. Original population Bottlenecking event Surviving population

Case Study: Impact of Genetic Drift on the Greater Prairie Chicken Loss of prairie habitat = reduction of population The surviving birds had low levels of genetic variation, and only 50% of their eggs hatched © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Greater prairie chicken Figure 23.11 Pre-bottleneck (Illinois, 1820) Post-bottleneck (Illinois, 1993) Greater prairie chicken Range of greater prairie chicken (a) Number of alleles per locus Percentage of eggs hatched Population size Location Illinois 1930–1960s 1993 1,000–25,000 <50 5.2 3.7 93 <50 Figure 23.11 Genetic drift and loss of genetic variation. Kansas, 1998 (no bottleneck) 750,000 5.8 99 Nebraska, 1998 (no bottleneck) 75,000– 200,000 5.8 96 (b)

The results showed a loss of alleles at several loci Researchers used DNA from museum specimens to compare genetic variation in the population before and after the bottleneck The results showed a loss of alleles at several loci Researchers introduced greater prairie chickens from populations in other states and were successful in introducing new alleles and increasing the egg hatch rate to 90% © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Effects of Genetic Drift: A Summary significant in small populations causes allele frequencies to change at random can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations can cause harmful alleles to become fixed © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gene Flow Gene flow consists of the movement of alleles among populations Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes (for example, pollen) Gene flow tends to reduce variation among populations over time © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gene flow can decrease the fitness of a population Consider, for example, the great tit (Parus major) on the Dutch island of Vlieland Mating causes gene flow between the central and eastern populations Immigration from the mainland introduces alleles that decrease fitness Natural selection selects for alleles that increase fitness Birds in the central region with high immigration have a lower fitness; birds in the east with low immigration have a higher fitness © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Population in which the surviving females eventually bred 60 Central Figure 23.12 Population in which the surviving females eventually bred 60 Central population Central 50 NORTH SEA Eastern population Eastern Vlieland, the Netherlands 40 2 km Survival rate (%) 30 20 10 Figure 23.12 Gene flow and local adaptation. Females born in central population Females born in eastern population Parus major

Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population Consider, for example, the spread of alleles for resistance to insecticides Insecticides have been used to target mosquitoes that carry West Nile virus and malaria Alleles have evolved in some populations that confer insecticide resistance to these mosquitoes The flow of insecticide resistance alleles into a population can cause an increase in fitness © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gene flow is an important agent of evolutionary change in human populations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.