CHAPTER 15 Animals of the Benthic Environment

Distribution of benthic organisms  More benthic productivity beneath areas of high surface primary productivity Mainly on continental shelves Affected by surface ocean currents Fig. 15.1

Benthic organisms on rocky shores  Epifauna (upon) Attached to substrate (e.g., marine algae) Move on/over seafloor (e.g., crabs, snails)  Moderate diversity of species Greatest animal diversity at tropical latitudes Greatest algae diversity at mid-latitudes (greater availability of nutrients due to lack of permanent thermocline in mid-lats)

Intertidal zonation (rocky shore) Fig a

Intertidal zonation (rocky shore)  Spray zone (supratidal) Avoid drying out Many animals have shells Few species of marine algae Fig. 15.2b Monterey Bay, CA

Intertidal zonation (rocky shore)  High tide zone Avoid drying out so animals have shells Marine algae—rock weeds with thick cell walls

Intertidal zonation (rocky shore)  Middle tide zone More types of marine algae Soft-bodied animals Pisaster – sea star, mussel predator Abalone

Intertidal zonation (rocky shore)  Low tide zone Abundant algae Many animals hidden by sea weed and sea grass Crabs abundant in all intertidal zones

Benthic organisms on sediment-covered shores  Similar intertidal zones  Less species diversity Greater number of organisms infauna Mostly infauna – burrow into sediment  Microbial communities Coquina (Donax) Coquina with valves extended

Intertidal zonation (sandy shore) Fig. 15.8

Benthic organisms on sediment-covered shores  Energy level along shore depends on Wave strength Longshore current strength  Wave/current energy determines habitat… Coarse boulder beaches Sand beaches Salt marshes Mud flats Fine-grained, flat-lying tidal flat more stable than high energy sandy beach

Sandy beaches  Animals burrow  Bivalve mollusks  Annelid worms  Crustaceans  Echinoderms  Meiofauna Fig Ghost crab hiding Mole crab

Mud flats  Eelgrass and turtle grass common  Bivalves and other mollusks  Fiddler crabs

Shallow ocean floor  Continental shelf  Mainly sediment covered  Kelp forest associated with rocky seafloor Also lobsters Oysters /pcd1742/kelp_forest_15_4.jpg

Figure 15.14a,b

Figure 15.14c

Figure

Coral reefs  Most coral polyps live in large colonies  Hard calcium carbonate structures cemented together by coralline algae

Coral reefs  Coral reefs limited to Warm (but not hot) seawater Sunlight (for symbiotic algae) Strong waves or currents Clear seawater Normal salinity Hard substrate

Reef-building corals Fig

Symbiosis of coral and algae  Coral reefs made of algae, mollusks, foraminifers as well as corals mutualistic relationship zooxanthellae  Hermatypic coral mutualistic relationship with algae – zooxanthellae Algae provide food Corals provide nutrients Soft coral polyp (Lobophytum compactum). Green shows the polyp tissue, while the red shows the zooxanthellae.

Coral reef zonation  Different types of corals at different depths Fig

Importance of coral reefs  Largest structures created by living organisms Great Barrier Reef, Australia, more than 2000 km (1250 m) long  Great diversity of species  Important tourist locales  Fisheries  Reefs protect shorelines Great Barrier Reef from space

Humans and coral reefs  Activities such as fishing, tourist collecting, sediment influx due to shore development harm coral reefs  Sewage discharge and agricultural fertilizers increase nutrients in reef waters Hermatypic corals thrive at low nutrient levels Phytoplankton overwhelm at high nutrient levels Bioerosion of coral reef by algae- eating organisms Coral covered with macroalgae

○ Other problems Smoothering by dredging, runoff Fishing practices, harvesting Pollution Global warming

Large vs. small reef fish: Fishery management regulations such as minimum sizes allow fishermen to keep only the largest fish. As shown by the red snapper example, the largest fish produce the most eggs. One 24-inch red snapper produces the same number of eggs as inch red snapper. So, by selectively removing the largest fish, the fishery removes the fish that have the greatest potential for producing more fish. ttp://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02sab/logs/aug05/media

Crown-of-thorns starfish and reefs  Sea star eats coral polyps  Outbreaks (greatly increased numbers) decimate reefs Fig

Worm Reefs Sabellariid worms (Phragmatopoma caudata) form shallow reefs St. Augustine to south end of Biscayne Bay Provide habitat for many organisms

 Adult worms (3/4 - 2 in. long) build reefs on limestone and coquina formations, jetties  Build sand hoods over tubes to reduce desiccation at low tide.  Protective tubes made of sand, joined to neighbors to build rigid, wave resistant structures.  15,000 to 60,000 worms per m 2  Live up to 10½ years.  Thais (oyster drill) is an important predator

Benthic organisms on the deep seafloor  Little known habitat – only accessable via dredge and some submersibles and ROVs  Bathyal, abyssal, hadal zones Little to no sunlight About the same temperature About the same salinity Oxygen content relatively high Pressure can be enormous Bottom currents usually slow

Food sources in deep seafloor  Most food sinks from surface waters  Low supply and “patchy” Fig

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent biocommunities  First discovered 1977  Chemosynthesis  Archaea use sea floor chemicals to make organic matter  Unique communities Tube worms Giant clams and mussels Crabs Microbial mats

Figure 15.27

Figure 15.25b Chemosynthesis Chemosynthesis Archaea use sea floor chemicals to make organic matter

Global hydrothermal vent fields Fig

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent biocommunities  Vents active for years or decades  Animals species similar at widely separated vents  Larvae drift from site to site  “Dead whale hypothesis”

Dead whale hypothesis ○ “Dead whale hypothesis” – Dispersal of vent organisms Pelagic eggs/larvae disperse to other food patches or vent fields -Methane-bearing springs on continental shelves and slopes are more common than originally thought -Possible dispersal to carcasses – support vent organisms -Take years to decompose -Use as "stepping stones Whale carcass with worms, sea cucumbers

On whale bones, only the pinkish trunk of this cross-section of a female Osedax tubeworm is visible. The white blobs are ovaries where more than 100 dwarf male tubeworms can live inside the female. Symbiotic bacteria give the tubeworm's roots their greenish color. Bacteria in the roots of Osedax produce nutrients by processing the fats and lipids in the bones of whales.

Figure 15.C Fish carcass On ocean floor

Figure 15.C 1

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent biocommunities  Life may have originated at hydrothermal vents  Chemosynthesis also occurs at low temperature seeps Hypersaline seeps Hypersaline seeps Hydrocarbon seeps Hydrocarbon seeps Subduction zone seeps Subduction zone seeps

Figure & 15.29

Figure 15.29b

Beneath the sea floor  Deep biosphere Microbes live in porous sea floor Might represent much of Earth’s total biomass In may 2008, prokaryotes were reported in mud cores extracted from between 860 to 1626 meters beneath the sea floor off Newfoundland. Cells were fold denser than in terrestrial cores of similar depth and about 5- 10% of the cells were dividing. deep-sea/dn13960-huge-hidden-biomass-lives- deep- beneath-the-oceans.html