Chapter 10 The images on this CD have been lifted directly, without change or modification, from textbooks and image libraries owned by the publisher, especially from publications intended for college majors in the discipline. Consequently, they are often more richly labeled than required for our purposes. Further, dates for geological intervals may vary between images, and between images and the textbook. Such dates are regularly revised as better corroborated times are established. Your best source for current geological times is a current edition of the textbook, whose dates should be used when differences arise.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Cactus, with projecting thorns  Prickly pear

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Leaf-cutter ants—mutualism  Above ground, ants cut small pieces of leaves and carry them to their underground nests where the chewed leaves enrich soil. Into this soil, bits of fungi are planted that grow and provide food for the ants.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Hummingbird feeding on a flower  Hummingbird feeding on a flower

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Bird of Paradise flower  Bird of Paradise flower

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Flower of an orchid  Note the distinguishing nectar guides, the spots near the center of the flower.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Orchid flowers that mimics specific female wasps  The flower’s mimicry attracts male wasps that arrive attempting to mate. Instead, the males only get doused with pollen, which they carry to the next expected amorous rendezvous.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Skunk cabbage  Rolled within its large leaves are the reproductive parts of the plant. When these mature, a pungent odor is released, drawing in insects that naturally seek such odors. In searching within the flower for the odor, they become covered with pollen, which they carry to other plants as they continue their search.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mutualism—fish  The small Spanish hogfish dashes into the mouth of a willing barracuda where it feeds on debris and parasites. The hogfish gains a meal and the barracuda gains a cleaning.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mutualism—birds and crocodiles  This African crocodile relaxes and holds its mouth open. This signals Egyptian Plovers to enter and safely feed on fouling parasites and debris. The crocodiles gain a cleaning, and the plovers a meal.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mutualism—oxpecker  This red-billed oxpecker forages for parasites on the backs of African ungulates. Here the oxpecker is working around the neck of domestic cattle. Parasites tend to collect along the back of the neck where scratching cannot dislodge them. The oxpecker gains a meal, and its customers get rid of parasites.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Camouflage--stone plants  These plants of dry and desert areas collect water within their tissues and occur in spare habitats where they could be easily spotted by grazing or browsing herbivores. However, their unusually rounded shape seems to make them appear like uninteresting stones, which are overlooked and these plants escape being eaten.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Camouflage—inedible  The resemblance of these insects to inedible plant parts affords them some protection from prowling insect-eating predators, such as birds.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Camouflage—coloration and shape  This dwarf seahorse (center) is camouflaged within the branches of this colonial sea fan. Reef, Solomon Islands.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Camouflage—arctic hare  This hare depends upon its white color to blend into the snowy background. When discovered, it turns to speed to make an escape from predators.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Harbor seal pup  The white coat of the harbor seal pup affords some camouflage with the ice and snow upon which it spends much of its early life when it is especially vulnerable to predators.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Camouflage—predator  This stonefish is encrusted with various creatures of the coral reef, camouflaging it to unsuspecting prey that cruise by.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Startle response, eyespots on butterfly  Flashed suddenly when approached, the eyespots on the wings of some butterflies are thought to confuse the insect-eating bird with its own predator, such as an owl, causing the bird to pause and give the butterfly a chance to escape.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Owl  Note the owl’s bright eyes.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mimicry I  Müllerian mimicry—Many bees, yellow jackets, and wasps have a common, bright yellow/black warning pattern, which they can all back up with an unpleasant sting. Batesian mimicry—Harmless syrphid flies evolved a similar color pattern, taking advantage of the avoidance of the yellow/black pattern.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mimicry II  a) Batesian mimicry between toxic monarch (model) and harmless viceroy (mimic), left and right, respectively. b) An example of Müllerian mimicry, where both ecologically sympatric pairs are distasteful, and both have warning coloration.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Life-cycle of monarch butterfly  Adult monarch butterflies are protected from birds and other predators by the toxins in their tissues. These toxins are incorporated from the milkweeds they feed on as larvae (caterpillars).

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Cleaner fish  This small, brightly stripped cleaner fish of the wrasse family is collecting a meal about the relaxed mouth of a large reef fish, Nassau Grouper, which benefits from the “cleaning.”

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Dodo bird (extinct)  The flightless dodo lived on the island of Mauritus off the coast of Africa until the last bird was killed in It fed on plants and seeds, including the seeds of the Calavaria tree. These seeds had evolved thick coats to survive the passage through the grinding gizzard of the dodo. With the extinction of the dodo, these seeds no longer made such an abrading trip through the digestive tract, the coat remained thick, and the young tree embryo could not so easily germinate.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 10.2 Ants and Aphids-Mutualism  These ants tend their “herd” of aphids, which in turn secrete fluids rich in sugars drunk up by the ants.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 10.3 Ants and Acacias-Mutualism  (a) Ants feed off the Beltian bodies produced at the tips of leaves by the acacia tree and off nectaries along the stems. (b) Ants live in the hollow, swollen thorns of the acacia. The ants protect the acacia from phytophagous insects and from overgrowth of competing species of plants.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 10.7 Inchworm Caterpillar, Resembling a Twig

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 10.8 Startle Response, Eyespots on Butterfly  (a) When discovered in its cryptic disguise, this butterfly suddenly flashes eyespots on the underside of its wings, startling the predator, and giving it an extra moment to make its escape. (b) The eyespots are thought to confuse the insect-eating bird with its own predators, such as an owl, causing the bird to pause.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE Blue Jay Learning Aversion to Distasteful Monarch  (a) This hand-reared blue jay, having never eaten a monarch, rips off the wings and gobbles down the body. (b) The toxins quickly make the blue jay sick, and it spits up the monarch. Thereafter, even if presented a monarch lacking such toxins, the blue jay refuses it.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE Flicker Frequency  A newborn watersnake shown crawling (a, c) and motionless (b, d). In motion, the snake’s banding pattern looks evenly gray, as it would when exceeding the flicker frequency of a predator. (From Pough 1976.)

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE Cleaner Fish and its Customer  The cleaner fish is the small, striped fish working around the relaxed mouth of the larger fish, gathering up bits of debris.