Acids, Bases, and Salts 19.1 Acid-Base Theories Chapter 19 19.2 Hydrogen Ions and Acidity 19.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases 19.4 Neutralization Reactions 19.5 Salts in Solution Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 1

Arrhenius Acids and Bases How did Arrhenius define an acid and a base? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 2

Acids and bases have distinct properties. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Acids and bases have distinct properties. Acids give foods a tart or sour taste. Aqueous solutions of acids are strong or weak electrolytes. Acids cause certain dyes, called indicators, to change color. Many metals, such as zinc and magnesium, react with aqueous solutions of acids to produce hydrogen gas. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 3

Acids and bases have distinct properties. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Acids and bases have distinct properties. Soap is a familiar material that has the properties of a base. The bitter taste is a general property of bases. The slippery feel of soap is another property of bases. Bases will cause an indicator to change color. Bases also form aqueous solutions that are strong or weak electrolytes. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 4

Arrhenius Acids and Bases In 1887, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed a new way of defining and thinking about acids and bases. According to Arrhenius, acids are hydrogen-containing compounds that ionize to yield hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. Bases are compounds that ionize to yield hydroxide ions (OH–) in aqueous solution. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 5

Arrhenius Acids Arrhenius Acids and Bases Some Common Acids Name Acids vary in the number of hydrogens they contain that can form hydrogen ions. Some Common Acids Name Formula Hydrochloric acid HCl Nitric acid HNO3 Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Carbonic acid H2CO3 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 6

Arrhenius Acids and Bases A hydrogen atom that can form a hydrogen ion is described as ionizable. Nitric acid (HNO3) has one ionizable hydrogen. Nitric acid is classified as a monoprotic acid. The prefix mono- means “one,” and the stem protic reflects the fact that a hydrogen ion is a proton. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 7

Arrhenius Acids and Bases A hydrogen atom that can form a hydrogen ion is described as ionizable. Nitric acid (HNO3) has one ionizable hydrogen. Nitric acid is classified as a monoprotic acid. Acids that contain two ionizable hydrogens, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4), are called diprotic acids. Acids that contain three ionizable hydrogens, such as phosphoric acid (H3PO4), are called triprotic acids. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 8

Not all compounds that contain hydrogen are acids. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Acids Not all compounds that contain hydrogen are acids. Only a hydrogen that is bonded to a very electronegative element can be released as an ion. Such bonds are highly polar. When a compound that contains such bonds dissolves in water, it releases hydrogen ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 9

Arrhenius Acids and Bases In an aqueous solution, hydrogen ions are not present. Instead, the hydrogen ions are joined to water molecules as hydronium ions. A hydronium ion (H3O+) is the ion that forms when a water molecule gains a hydrogen ion. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 10

Arrhenius Acids and Bases Methane (CH4) is an example of a hydrogen-containing compound that is not an acid. The four hydrogen atoms in methane are attached to the central carbon atom by weakly polar C—H bonds. Methane has no ionizable hydrogens and is not an acid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 11

Arrhenius Acids and Bases Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), which is commonly called acetic acid, is an example of a molecule that contains both hydrogens that do not ionize and a hydrogen that does ionize. Although its molecules contain four hydrogens, ethanoic acid is a monoprotic acid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 12

Arrhenius Acids and Bases The three hydrogens attached to a carbon atom are in weakly polar bonds. They do not ionize. Only the hydrogen bonded to the highly electronegative oxygen can be ionized. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 13

The table below lists four common bases. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases The table below lists four common bases. Some Common Bases Name Formula Solubility in Water Sodium hydroxide NaOH High Potassium hydroxide KOH Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Very low Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 14

The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is known as lye. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is known as lye. Sodium hydroxide is an ionic solid. It dissociates into sodium ions in aqueous solution. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 15

The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is known as lye. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is known as lye. Sodium hydroxide is extremely caustic. A caustic substance can burn or eat away materials with which it comes in contact. This property is the reason that sodium hydroxide is a major component of products that are used to clean clogged drains. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 16

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is another ionic solid. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is another ionic solid. It dissociates to produce potassium ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 17

Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases Sodium and potassium are Group 1A elements. Elements in Group 1A, the alkali metals, react violently with water. The products of these reactions are aqueous solutions of a hydroxide and a hydrogen gas. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 18

Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are very soluble in water. Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are very soluble in water. The solutions would typically have the bitter taste and slippery feel of a base, but you would not want to test these properties. The solutions are extremely caustic to the skin. They can cause deep, painful, slow-healing wounds if not immediately washed off. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 19

Ammonia is a base, and bases are caustic in high concentrations. CHEMISTRY & YOU Visitors to Bracken Cave wear protective gear to keep ammonia gas out of their eyes and respiratory tracts. Think about the properties of bases. Why are high levels of ammonia harmful? Ammonia is a base, and bases are caustic in high concentrations. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 20

Arrhenius Acids and Bases Arrhenius Bases Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, and magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, are compounds of Group 2A metals. These compounds are not very soluble in water. Their solutions are always very dilute, even when saturated. The low solubility of magnesium hydroxide makes the suspension safe to consume. Some people use this suspension as an antacid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 21

Can every hydrogen from every molecule form hydrogen ions, therefore acting as an Arrhenius acid? No. Only hydrogens that are bonded to a very electronegative element can be released as ions. That means that only molecules containing hydrogens bonded to very electronegative elements are Arrhenius acids. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 22

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases What distinguishes an acid from a base in the Brønsted-Lowry theory? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 23

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and ammonia (NH3) act as bases when they form aqueous solutions. Neither of these compounds is a hydroxide-containing compound, so neither would be classified as a base by the Arrhenius definition. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 24

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases In 1923, the Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and the English chemist Thomas Lowry were working independently. Each chemist proposed the same definition of acids and bases. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 25

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor. This theory includes all the acids and bases that Arrhenius defined. It also includes some compounds that Arrhenius did not classify as bases. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 26

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases You can use the Brønsted-Lowry theory to understand why ammonia is a base. When ammonia dissolves in water, hydrogen ions are transferred from water to ammonia to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions. Ammonia is a Brønsted-Lowry base because it accepts hydrogen ions. Water is a Brønsted-Lowry acid because it donates hydrogen ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 27

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases When the temperature of an aqueous solution of ammonia is increased, ammonia gas is released. HNH4+ reacts with OH– to form more NH3 and H2O. In the reverse reaction, ammonium ions donate hydrogen ions to hydroxide ions. NH4+ (the donor) acts as a Brønsted-Lowry acid, and OH− (the acceptor) acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 28

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases In essence, the reversible reaction of ammonia and water has two acids and two bases. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 29

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases A conjugate acid is the ion or molecule formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion. NH4+ is the conjugate acid of the base NH3. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 30

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases A conjugate base is the ion or molecule that remains after an acid loses a hydrogen ion. OH– is the conjugate base of the acid H2O. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 31

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases Conjugate acids are always paired with a base, and conjugate bases are always paired with an acid. A conjugate acid-base pair consists of two ions or molecules related by the loss or gain of one hydrogen ion. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 32

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases The ammonia molecule and the ammonium ion are a conjugate acid-base pair. The water molecule and the hydroxide ion are also a conjugate acid-base pair. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 33

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases In this reaction, hydrogen chloride is the hydrogen-ion donor and is by definition a Brønsted-Lowry acid. Water is the hydrogen-ion acceptor and a Brønsted-Lowry base. The chloride ion is the conjugate base of the acid HCl. The hydronium ion is the conjugate acid of the water base. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 34

Conjugate Acids and Bases Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases The figure below shows the reaction that takes place when sulfuric acid dissolves in water. The products are hydronium ions and hydrogen sulfate ions. Use the figure to identify the two conjugate acid-base pairs. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 35

Some Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Some Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Acid Base HCl Cl– H2SO4 HSO4– H3O+ H2O SO42– CH3COOH CH3COO– H2CO3 HCO3− HCO3– CO32– NH4+ NH3 OH– Amphoteric Substances Note that water appears in both the list of acids and the list of bases. Sometimes water accepts a hydrogen ion. At other times, it donates a hydrogen ion. How water behaves depends on the other reactant. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 36

Amphoteric Substances Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Amphoteric Substances A substance that can act as either an acid or a base is said to be amphoteric. Water is amphoteric. In the reaction with hydrochloric acid, water accepts a proton and is therefore a base. In the reaction with ammonia, water donates a proton and is therefore an acid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 37

How can one substance, such as water, be both an acid and a base, according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition? Because water can act as both a hydrogen-ion donator and a hydrogen-ion acceptor, it can act as both an acid and a base according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 38

Lewis Acids and Bases Lewis Acids and Bases How did Lewis define an acid and a base? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 39

Lewis Acids and Bases According to Gilbert Lewis, an acid accepts a pair of electrons and a base donates a pair of electrons during a reaction. This definition is more general than those offered by Arrhenius or by Brønsted and Lowry. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 40

Lewis Acids and Bases A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. The Lewis definitions include all the Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 41

Lewis Acids and Bases Consider the reaction of H+ and OH–. The hydrogen ion donates itself to the hydroxide ion. H+ is a Brønsted-Lowry acid, and OH− is a Brønsted-Lowry base. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 42

Lewis Acids and Bases Consider the reaction of H+ and OH–. The hydroxide ion can bond to the hydrogen ion because it has an unshared pair of electrons. OH− is also a Lewis base, and H+, which accepts the pair of electrons, is a Lewis acid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 43

Lewis Acids and Bases A second example of a reaction between a Lewis acid and a Lewis base is what happens when ammonia dissolves in water. Hydrogen ions from the dissociation of water are the electron-pair acceptor and the Lewis acid. Ammonia is the electron-pair donor and the Lewis base. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 44

Acid-Base Definitions Interpret Data This table compares the definitions of acids and bases. Acid-Base Definitions Type Acid Base Arrhenius H+ producer OH– producer Brønsted-Lowry H+ donor H+ acceptor Lewis electron-pair acceptor electron-pair donor The Lewis definition is the broadest. It extends to compounds that the Brønsted-Lowry theory does not classify as acids and bases. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 45

Identifying Lewis Acids and Bases Sample Problem 19.1 Identifying Lewis Acids and Bases Identify the Lewis acid and the Lewis base in this reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride. NH3 + BF3 → NH3BF3 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 46

Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. Sample Problem 19.1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. 1 When a Lewis acid reacts with a Lewis base, the base donates a pair of electrons and the acid accepts the donated pair. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 47

Solve Apply concepts to this problem. Sample Problem 19.1 Solve Apply concepts to this problem. 2 Identify the reactant with the unshared pair of electrons and the reactant that can accept the pair of electrons. Draw electron dot structures to identify which reactant has an unshared pair of electrons. Ammonia has an unshared pair of electrons to donate. The boron atom can accept the donated electrons. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 48

Solve Apply concepts to this problem. Sample Problem 19.1 Solve Apply concepts to this problem. 2 Classify the reactants based on their behavior. Lewis bases donate a pair of electrons, so ammonia is the Lewis base. Lewis acids accept a pair of electrons, so boron trifluoride is the Lewis acid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 49

Are hydrogen-ion donors also electron-pair acceptors? Yes. All substances defined as acids by the Brønsted-Lowry definition (an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor) are also defined as acids by the Lewis definition (an acid is an electron-pair acceptor). That means that these substances are both hydrogen-ion donors and electron-pair acceptors. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 50

Key Concepts According to Arrhenius, acids are hydrogen-containing compounds that ionize to yield hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. Bases are compounds that ionize to yield hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. According to Brønsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor. According to Lewis, an acid accepts a pair of electrons and a base donates a pair of electrons. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 51

Glossary Terms hydronium ion (H3O+): the positive ion formed when a water molecule gains a hydrogen ion conjugate acid: the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion; NH4+ is the conjugate acid of the base NH3 conjugate base: the particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen ion; OH– is the conjugate base of the acid water Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 52

Glossary Terms conjugate acid-base pair: two substances that are related by the loss or gain of a single hydrogen ion; ammonia (NH3) and the ammonium ion (NH4+) are a conjugate acid-base pair amphoteric: a substance that can act as both an acid and a base Lewis acid: any substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond Lewis base: any substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 53

BIG IDEA Reactions Chemists define acids and bases according to the ions they yield in aqueous solution. Chemists also define acids and bases based on whether they accept or donate hydrogen ions, and whether they are electron-pair donors or acceptors. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. 54

END OF 19.1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.