and the end of civilisation The Trinity

“In 381 AD, Theodosius, emperor of the eastern Roman Empire, issued a decree in which all his subjects were required to subscribe to a belief in the Trinity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. This edict defined Christian orthodoxy and brought to an end a lively and wide ranging debate about the nature of the Godhead, all other interpretations now declared heretical.”

“For the first time in a thousand years of Greco- Roman civilisation, free thought was unambiguously suppressed.”

These events marked an important shift in politics, religion and freedom of speech in the Roman Empire. It has been argued that this shift was one of the major events in the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Constantine to Theodosius Constantine I First Christian Emperor Constantine I First Christian Emperor Constantine II } Constantine II } Constans I } Constans I } Constantius II } Constantius II } Julian the Apostate (last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire) Julian the Apostate (last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire) Jovian (re-established Christianity as the official religion of Jovian (re-established Christianity as the official religion of the empire) Valentinian I Valentinian I Valens } Valens } Gratian } Gratian } Valentinian II } Valentinian II } Theodosius I Emperor in the East Theodosius I Emperor in the East

Constantine I “the Great” Moved the seat of the Empire, and introduced important changes into its civil and religious constitution. In 330 he founded Constantinople as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, well-positioned astride the trade routes between East and West.

Constantine I Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference, since the Emperor supported it with generous privileges. Constantine established the principle that emperors should not settle questions of doctrine, but should summon general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose.

Council of Nicaea AD 325 Showcased Constantine’s claim to be head of the Church Primarily to resolve disagreements over the nature of Christ and his relationship to the Father.

Constantine’s Christianity In 325, Constantine I convened the Council of Nicea, which asserted that Jesus, the Son, was equal to the Father, one with the Father, and of the same substance (homoousios in Greek). In 325, Constantine I convened the Council of Nicea, which asserted that Jesus, the Son, was equal to the Father, one with the Father, and of the same substance (homoousios in Greek). The council condemned the teachings of the theologian Arius: that the Son was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a similar substance (homoiousios in Greek) but not identical. The council condemned the teachings of the theologian Arius: that the Son was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a similar substance (homoiousios in Greek) but not identical. Despite the council's ruling, controversy continued. By the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different church factions that promoted alternative Christology. Despite the council's ruling, controversy continued. By the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different church factions that promoted alternative Christology.

Constantine I Constantine burning Arian books Constantine burning Arian books Illustration from a northern Italian compendium of canon law, ca. 825 Illustration from a northern Italian compendium of canon law, ca. 825

Constantius II Third son of Constantine I Third son of Constantine I Roman Emperor of entire empire Roman Emperor of entire empire Most contemporaries held him in high esteem Most contemporaries held him in high esteem Inspired loyalty Inspired loyalty To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy “A conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man” (A.H.M. Jones) “A conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man” (A.H.M. Jones)

Constantius II Christian-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: Exemption from compulsory public service for the clergy; Exemption from compulsory public service for the clergy; Exemption from compulsory public service for the sons of clergy Exemption from compulsory public service for the sons of clergy Tax exemptions for clergy and their servants, also later for their family Tax exemptions for clergy and their servants, also later for their family Clergy and the issue of private property Clergy and the issue of private property Bishops exempted from being tried in secular courts Bishops exempted from being tried in secular courts Christian prostitutes only able to be bought by Christians Christian prostitutes only able to be bought by Christians

Council of Antioch 341 Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the east Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the east The bishop of Rome was not represented. The bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor Constantius II attended in person. The emperor Constantius II attended in person. The council approved three creeds. The council approved three creeds. While repudiating certain Arian formulas it avoided the orthodox term "homoousios," fiercely advocated by Athanasius and accepted by the First Council of Nicaea. While repudiating certain Arian formulas it avoided the orthodox term "homoousios," fiercely advocated by Athanasius and accepted by the First Council of Nicaea.

Council of Antioch 341 Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in the metropolitan (later called archbishop) and the semi-annual provincial synod which he summons and over which he presides. Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in the metropolitan (later called archbishop) and the semi-annual provincial synod which he summons and over which he presides. While not regarded as “ecumenical” the 25 Canons of this Council formed part of the Codex canonum used at Chalcedon in 451 and passed over into the later collections of East and West. While not regarded as “ecumenical” the 25 Canons of this Council formed part of the Codex canonum used at Chalcedon in 451 and passed over into the later collections of East and West.

Constantius II Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicaean Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicaean Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism Constantius made a concerted attempt to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, and to this end, he convened several Christian councils during his reign, the most notable of which were one at Rimini and its twin at Seleuca, which met in 359 and 360 respectively. Constantius made a concerted attempt to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, and to this end, he convened several Christian councils during his reign, the most notable of which were one at Rimini and its twin at Seleuca, which met in 359 and 360 respectively.

Constantius II “Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious. The great councils of are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church.” A.H.M. Jones

Theodosius I “the Great” Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over the full extent of the empire in both its halves. Theodosius promoted Nicene Trinitarianism within Christianity and Christianity within the Empire.

Theodosius I “the Great” Known for making Nicene Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire. On February 27, 380, he declared "Catholic Christianity" the only legitimate imperial religion, ending state support for the traditional (pagan) Roman religion.

Theodosius I “the Great” After his death in 395, the Roman Empire was permanently divided.

Codex Theodosianus XVI.1.2 On February 27, 380 together with Gratian and Valentinian II Theodosius published an edict in order that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria. On February 27, 380 together with Gratian and Valentinian II Theodosius published an edict in order that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria.

Codex Theodosianus XVI.1.2 According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title of Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since, in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give to their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will of Heaven we shall decide to inflict. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title of Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since, in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give to their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will of Heaven we shall decide to inflict. Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, 1967, 2nd. (1st. 1943), p. 22 Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, 1967, 2nd. (1st. 1943), p. 22

First Council of Constantinople In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicean orthodoxy. In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicean orthodoxy. The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the mysterious Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost who, though equal to the Father, 'proceeded' from Him, whereas the Son was 'begotten' of Him. The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the mysterious Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost who, though equal to the Father, 'proceeded' from Him, whereas the Son was 'begotten' of Him.

First Council of Constantinople About the Holy Spirit the article of faith said he is "the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified". About the Holy Spirit the article of faith said he is "the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified". The statement of proceeding from the Father is seen as significant because it established that the Holy Spirit must be of the same being (ousia) The statement of proceeding from the Father is seen as significant because it established that the Holy Spirit must be of the same being (ousia)

The decision “It is impossible to believe that the Church would itself have come to an enforceable consensus on the Trinity if an emperor had not provided the legal framework within which the Nicenes could be privileged over the various groups of ‘heretics’ who opposed them.” Charles Freeman (p. 200)

The decision “When, in the west, some 150 years later Pope Gregory claimed that the bishops themselves had achieved consensus at these councils, he was ignoring the historical record and the well- documented role of the emperors.” Charles Freeman (p. 200)

The consequences The term ‘heretic’ defined in law for the first time. The term ‘heretic’ defined in law for the first time. Christians executed for their beliefs for the first time since the great persecution of Diocletian. Christians executed for their beliefs for the first time since the great persecution of Diocletian. Burning alive, the traditional Roman punishment for counterfeiting coins, was adopted for those who ‘counterfeited’ the teachings of Christ. Burning alive, the traditional Roman punishment for counterfeiting coins, was adopted for those who ‘counterfeited’ the teachings of Christ. Power of the bishops and clergy increased. Power of the bishops and clergy increased. Bishops became wealthier. Bishops became wealthier.

The consequences “Increasingly access to heaven or hell seemed to depend on holding correct belief, so that the self-glorifying Nicene Ambrose of Milan is assumed to be destined for heaven while the ‘Arian’ missionary Ulfilas and the brilliant Origen are assumed not to be. In essence, sainthood had become politicised.” Charles Freeman (p. 203)

Theodosius’ legacy From 381 onwards, Theodosius and his successors eliminated the tradition of free speech. By deriding the opponents of Nicaea as ‘demented heretics’ and threatening them with the weight of the law and eternal punishment, they destroyed the possibilities of continuing the debate.” Charles Freeman (p. 204)

The collapse of the western empire Disappearance of trade and industry. Disappearance of trade and industry. Economic collapse. Economic collapse. Stifling of intellectualism, science and free thought. Stifling of intellectualism, science and free thought. Decline in the arts, invention and medicine. Decline in the arts, invention and medicine. Decline in literacy. Decline in literacy. Loss of libraries and literature. Loss of libraries and literature. Many ancient manuscripts decayed and disappeared. Many ancient manuscripts decayed and disappeared. Emergence of the “dark ages”. Emergence of the “dark ages”.