Problem Solving and Algorithms Chapter 7 Change cover and background Problem Solving and Algorithms

Problem Solving How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method by George Polya "How to solve it list" written within the context of mathematical problems But list is quite general We can use it to solve computer related problems!

Problem Solving How do you solve problems? Understand the problem Devise a plan Carry out the plan Look back

Strategies Ask questions! What do I know about the problem? What is the information that I have to process in order the find the solution? What does the solution look like? What sort of special cases exist? How will I recognize that I have found the solution?

Strategies Ask questions! Never reinvent the wheel! Similar problems come up again and again in different guises A good programmer recognizes a task or subtask that has been solved before and plugs in the solution Can you think of two similar problems?

Strategies Divide and Conquer! Break up a large problem into smaller units and solve each smaller problem Applies the concept of abstraction The divide-and-conquer approach can be applied over and over again until each subtask is manageable

Computer Problem-Solving Analysis and Specification Phase Analyze Specification Algorithm Development Phase Develop algorithm Test algorithm Implementation Phase Code algorithm Maintenance Phase Use Maintain Can you name a recurring theme?

Phase Interactions Should we add another arrow? (What happens if the problem is revised?)

Algorithms Algorithm A set of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem or subproblem in a finite amount of time using a finite amount of data Abstract Step An algorithmic step containing unspecified details Concrete Step An algorithm step in which all details are specified

Developing an Algorithm Two methodologies used to develop computer solutions to a problem Top-down design focuses on the tasks to be done Object-oriented design focuses on the data involved in the solution (We will discuss this design in Ch. 9)

Summary of Methodology Analyze the Problem Understand the problem!! Develop a plan of attack List the Main Tasks (becomes Main Module) Restate problem as a list of tasks (modules) Give each task a name Write the Remaining Modules Restate each abstract module as a list of tasks Re-sequence and Revise as Necessary Process ends when all steps (modules) are concrete

Top-Down Design Process continues for as many levels as it takes to make every step concrete Name of (sub)problem at one level becomes a module at next lower level

Control Structures Control structure An instruction that determines the order in which other instructions in a program are executed Can you name the ones we defined in the functionality of pseudocode?

Selection Statements Flow of control of if statement

Algorithm with Selection Problem: Write the appropriate dress for a given temperature. Write "Enter temperature" Read temperature Determine Dress Which statements are concrete? Which statements are abstract? 15 15

Algorithm with Selection - IF Determine Dress IF (temperature > 90) Write “Texas weather: wear shorts” ELSE IF (temperature > 70) Write “Ideal weather: short sleeves are fine” ELSE IF (temperature > 50) Write “A little chilly: wear a light jacket” ELSE IF (temperature > 32) Write “Philadelphia weather: wear a heavy coat” ELSE Write “Stay inside” 16 16

Looping Statements Flow of control of while statement

Looping Statements - While Why is it called a count-controlled loop? A count-controlled loop Set sum to 0 Set count to 1 While (count <= limit) Read number Set sum to sum + number Increment count Write "Sum is " + sum

Looping Statements - While An event-controlled loop Set sum to 0 Set allPositive to true WHILE (allPositive) Read number IF (number > 0) Set sum to sum + number ELSE Set allPositive to false Write "Sum is " + sum Why is it called an event-controlled loop? What is the event?

Are there any abstract steps? Looping Statements Calculate Square Root Read in square Calculate the square root Write out square and the square root Are there any abstract steps? 20 20

Are there any abstract steps? Looping Statements Calculate Square Root Set epsilon to 1 WHILE (epsilon > 0.001) Calculate new guess Set epsilon to abs(square - guess * guess) Are there any abstract steps? 21 21

Are there any abstract steps? Looping Statements Calculate New Guess Set newGuess to (guess + (square/guess)) / 2.0 Are there any abstract steps? 22 22

Looping Statements Read in square Set guess to square/4 Set epsilon to 1 WHILE (epsilon > 0.001) Calculate new guess Set epsilon to abs(square - guess * guess) Write out square and the guess 23 23

Composite Data Types Records A named heterogeneous collection of items in which individual items are accessed by name. For example, we could bundle name, age and hourly wage items into a record named Employee Arrays A named homogeneous collection of items in which an individual item is accessed by its position (index) within the collection

Composite Data Types Employee name age hourly/Wage Following algorithm, stores values into the fields of record: Employee employee // Declare and Employee variable Set employee.name to “Frank Jones” Set employee.age to 32 Set employee.hourlyWage to 27.50

Composite Data Types  numbers[0] numbers[4]

Arrays As data is being read into an array, a counter is updated so that we always know how many data items were stored If the array is called list, we are working with list[0] to list[length-1] or list[0]..list[length-1]

An Unsorted Array data[0]...data[length-1] is of interest

Composite Data Types Fill array numbers with limit values integer data[20] Write “How many values?” Read length Set index to 0 WHILE (index < length) Read data[index] Set index to index + 1 WHY? 29 29

Sequential Search of an Unsorted Array A sequential search examines each item in turn and compares it to the one we are searching. If it matches, we have found the item. If not, we look at the next item in the array. We stop either when we have found the item or when we have looked at all the items and not found a match Thus, a loop with two ending conditions

Sequential Search Algorithm Set Position to 0 Set found to FALSE WHILE (position < length AND NOT found ) IF (numbers [position] equals searchitem) Set Found to TRUE ELSE Set position to position + 1

Booleans Boolean Operators A Boolean variable is a location in memory that can contain either true or false Boolean operator AND returns TRUE if both operands are true and FALSE otherwise Boolean operator OR returns TRUE if either operand is true and FALSE otherwise Boolean operator NOT returns TRUE if its operand is false and FALSE if its operand is true – Double negative

Sorted Arrays The values stored in an array have unique keys of a type for which the relational operators are defined Sorting rearranges the elements into either ascending or descending order within the array A sorted array is one in which the elements are in order

Sequential Search in a Sorted Array If items in an array are sorted, we can stop looking when we pass the place where the item would be it were present in the array Is this better?

A Sorted Array A sorted array of integers

A Sorted Array Read in array of values Write “Enter value for which to search” Read searchItem Set found to TRUE if searchItem is there IF (found) Write “Item is found” ELSE Write “Item is not found” 36 36

A Sorted Array Set found to TRUE if searchItem is there Set index to 0 Set found to FALSE WHILE (index < length AND NOT found) IF (data[index] equals searchItem) Set found to TRUE - stops ELSE IF (data[index] > searchItem) Set index to length - stops ELSE Set index to index + 1 37 37

Binary Search Sequential search Search begins at the beginning of the list and continues until the item is found or the entire list has been searched (end of the list – max length) Binary search (list must be sorted) Search begins at the middle and finds the item or eliminates half of the unexamined items; process is repeated on the half where the item might be Say that again…

Binary Search Set first to 0 Set last to length-1 Set found to FALSE WHILE (first <= last AND NOT found) Set middle to (first + last)/ 2 IF (item equals data[middle])) Set found to TRUE ELSE ----- go to the lower half IF (item < data[middle]) Set last to middle – 1 ELSE ----- go to the upper half Set first to middle + 1 RETURN found

Binary Search Figure 7.10 Trace of the binary search

Binary Search Is a binary search always better? Table 7.1 Average Number of Comparisons Is a binary search always better?

Why is sorting important? Arranging items in a collection so that there is an ordering on one (or more) of the fields in the items Sort Key The field (or fields) on which the ordering is based Sorting algorithms Algorithms that order the items in the collection based on the sort key

Selection Sort – Put in Alphabetical Order Given a list of names, put them in alphabetical order Find the name that comes first in the alphabet, and write it on a second sheet of paper Cross out the name off the original list Continue this cycle until all the names on the original list have been crossed out and written onto the second list, at which point the second list contains the same items but in sorted order

Selection Sort A slight adjustment to this manual approach does away with the need to duplicate space As you cross a name off the original list, a free space opens up Instead of writing the value found on a second list, exchange it with the value currently in the position where the crossed-off item should go

Selection Sort Figure 7.11 Example of a selection sort (sorted elements are shaded)

Selection Sort Selection Sort Set firstUnsorted to 0 WHILE (not sorted yet) Find smallest unsorted item Swap firstUnsorted item with the smallest Set firstUnsorted to firstUnsorted + 1 Not sorted yet current < length – 1 46 46

Selection Sort Find smallest unsorted item Set indexOfSmallest to firstUnsorted Set index to firstUnsorted + 1 WHILE (index <= length – 1) IF (data[index] < data[indexOfSmallest]) Set indexOfSmallest to index Set index to index + 1 Set index to indexOfSmallest - stops 47 47

Selection Sort – Temp values Swap firstUnsorted with smallest Set tempItem to data[firstUnsorted] Set data[firstUnsorted] to data[indexOfSmallest] Set data[indexOfSmallest] to tempItem 48 48

Bubble Sort Bubble Sort uses the same strategy: Find the next item Put it into its proper place But uses a different scheme for finding the next item Starting with the last list element, compare successive pairs of elements, swapping whenever the bottom element of the pair is smaller than the one above it

Bubble Sort

Bubble Sort Bubble sort is very slow! Can you see a way to make it faster? Under what circumstances is bubble sort fast? 51 51

Bubble Sort Bubble Sort Set firstUnsorted to 0 Set index to firstUnsorted + 1 Set swap to TRUE WHILE (index < length AND swap) Set swap to FALSE “Bubble up” the smallest item in unsorted part Set firstUnsorted to firstUnsorted + 1

Bubble Sort Bubble up Set index to length – 1 WHILE (index > firstUnsorted + 1) IF (data[index] < data[index – 1]) Swap data[index] and data[index – 1] Set swap to TRUE Set index to index - 1 53 53

Insertion Sort If you have only one item in the array, it is already sorted. If you have two items, you can compare and swap them if necessary, sorting the first two with respect to themselves. Take the third item and put it into its place relative to the first two Now the first three items are sorted with respect to one another

Insertion Sort The item being added to the sorted portion can be bubbled up as in the bubble sort

Insertion Sort InsertionSort Set current to 1 WHILE (current < length) Set index to current Set placeFound to FALSE WHILE (index > 0 AND NOT placeFound) IF (data[index] < data[index – 1]) Swap data[index] and data[index – 1] Set index to index – 1 ELSE Set placeFound to TRUE Set current to current + 1 56 56

Subprogram Statements We can give a section of code a name and use that name as a statement in another part of the program When the name is encountered, the processing in the other part of the program halts while the named code is executed Remember?

Subprogram Statements What if the subprogram needs data from the calling unit? Parameters Identifiers listed in parentheses beside the subprogram declaration; sometimes called formal parameters Arguments Identifiers listed in parentheses on the subprogram call; sometimes called actual parameters

Subprogram Statements Figure 7.14 Subprogram flow of control

Subprogram Return Result

Recursion Recursion The ability of a subprogram to call itself Base case The case to which we have an answer General case The case that expresses the solution in terms of a call to itself with a smaller version of the problem

Recursion Recursion The ability of a subprogram to call itself

Recursion For example, the factorial of a number is defined as the number times the product of all the numbers between itself and 0: N! = N * (N  1)! Base case Factorial(0) = 1 (0! is 1) General Case Factorial(N) = N * Factorial(N-1)

Recursion Write “Enter n” Read n Set result to Factorial(n) Write result + “ is the factorial of “ + n Factorial(n) IF (n equals 0) RETURN 1 ELSE RETURN n * Factorial(n-1) 64 64

Recursion BinarySearch (first, last) IF (first > last) RETURN FALSE ELSE Set middle to (first + last)/ 2 IF (item equals data[middle]) RETURN TRUE IF (item < data[middle]) BinarySearch (first, middle – 1) BinarySearch (middle + 1, last 65 65

Quicksort It is easier to sort a smaller number of items: Sort A…F, G…L, M…R, and S…Z and A…Z is sorted Ordering a list using the Quicksort algorithm

Quicksort algorithm With each attempt to sort the stack of data elements, the stack is divided at a splitting value, splitVal, and the same approach is used to sort each of the smaller stacks (a smaller case) Process continues until the small stacks do not need to be divided further (the base case) The variables first and last in Quicksort algorithm reflect the part of the array data that is currently being processed

Quicksort Quicksort(first, last) IF (first < last) // There is more than one item Select splitVal Split (splitVal) // Array between first and // splitPoint–1 <= splitVal // data[splitPoint] = splitVal // Array between splitPoint + 1 // and last > splitVal Quicksort (first, splitPoint - 1) Quicksort (splitPoint + 1, last)

Quicksort

Quicksort Split(splitVal) Set left to first + 1 Set right to last WHILE (left <= right) Increment left until data[left] > splitVal OR left > right Decrement right until data[right] < splitVal OR left > right IF(left < right) Swap data[left] and data[right] Set splitPoint to right Swap data[first] and data[splitPoint] Return splitPoint

Quicksort

Important Threads Information Hiding The practice of hiding the details of a module with the goal of controlling access to it Abstraction A model of a complex system that includes only the details essential to the viewer Information Hiding and Abstraction are two sides of the same coin

Important Threads Data abstraction Separation of the logical view of data from their implementation Procedural abstraction Separation of the logical view of actions from their implementation Control abstraction Separation of the logical view of a control structure from its implementation

Important Threads Identifiers Names given to data and actions, by which we access the data and Read firstName, Set count to count + 1 execute the actions Split(splitVal) Giving names to data and actions is a form of abstraction

Abstraction is the most powerful tool people have for Important Threads Abstraction is the most powerful tool people have for managing complexity!

Ethical Issues Open-Source Software Development What are the advantages and disadvantages of open-source software? What does the success of Linux suggest about the future of open-source software? Should open-source software be licensed and subject to standard copyright laws?