Fig. 4. Overview of studies using optogenetics beyond the brain.

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Fig. 4. Overview of studies using optogenetics beyond the brain. Overview of studies using optogenetics beyond the brain. The schematic indicates studies using optogenetics to control mammalian excitable cells by delivering light to intact tissue outside of the brain. Each square represents one or more studies indicated by the reference numbers in parentheses at the top. The key explains the features of each study through the background color of the square. Also indicated in each square is the approximate location of light delivery, the approximate color of light used, and the name of the opsin or chemical employed. The top three rows represent studies completed in ex vivo samples of intact mammalian tissue, such as excised vascular smooth muscle (40). The second three rows represent studies completed in anesthetized mammals. The bottom three rows represent studies completed in awake mammals. If more than one type of experiment was used in a study, the study square is placed in the lowest row applicable. The first three columns represent studies in which transgenesis was used to confer light sensitivity. The second three columns represent studies that used more translationally relevant strategies such as viral transduction, cell transplant, and chemical photoswitches. The bottom three rows and right three columns represent studies that are the most translationally relevant including the demonstration of the optogenetic inhibition of pain (6), the optogenetic stimulation of motor neurons (4), and the optogenetic control of glucose homeostasis (9). Arch, archaerhodopsin; bPAC, a photoactivated adenylate cyclase derived from Beggiatoa; ChETA, engineered channelrhodopsin-2 mutants with fast-time kinetics; ChR2, channelrhodopsin-2; EROS, an erectile optogenetic stimulator; NpHR, halorhodopsin; QAQ, quaternary ammonium–azobenzene–quaternary ammonium. Kate L. Montgomery et al., Sci Transl Med 2016;8:337rv5 Published by AAAS