Taxation and Government Intervention Chapter 7

Taxation and Government For government to provide goods and services such as national defense, social security, national parks, etc. it must have money. The Government raises money several ways including user fees and taxes. User Fees are fees paid by those that use the good or service: it is a price. Taxes may be paid by everyone or only those that use a good or service: who pays depends on the type of tax.

Types of Taxes There are many types of taxes: Personal Income taxes Corporate Income taxes Excise Taxes Value Added Taxes (VAT) Property Taxes Social Security Taxes Sales Taxes

Tax Burden or Incidence Who seems to pay the tax and who actually pays the tax may not be the same person! For example, suppose the federal government institutes a 10% excise tax on luxury boats. Suppose the consumer pays the tax up front: on the purchase of a $100,000 luxury boat the consumer pays sales taxes of 5% and a luxury tax of 10% for a total price of $115,000 (there is no tax on tax). But what if the boat builder had to lower the price from $110,000 to $100,000 to sell the boat? In this case, the buyer appears to pay the luxury tax but in reality the boat builder pays the taxes. The entire burden of the tax falls on the boat builder.

What is the Role of Government? The level of taxes is determined by the amount of government services and goods provided. The Government’s roles include: Providing a stable set of institutions, laws and rules. Promoting effective and workable competition. Correcting for externalities. Creating an environment that fosters economic stability and growth. Providing public goods. Adjusting for undesirable market results.

The How Much Should Government Tax? The government must raise revenues equal to the cost of providing the amount of goods and services that its citizens demand.

The Costs of Taxation The costs of taxation include: The direct cost of the revenue paid to government The loss of consumer and producer surplus caused by the tax The cost of administering the tax codes.

The Costs of Taxation When government institutes taxes, there is a loss of consumer and producer surplus that is not gained by government. This is known as deadweight loss.

The Costs of Taxation Graphically the deadweight loss is shown on a supply-demand curve as the welfare loss triangle. The welfare loss triangle – a geometric representation of the welfare loss in terms of misallocated resources caused by a deviation from a supply-demand equilibrium.

Consumer Surplus Producer Surplus Consumer Surplus – the amount of consumers would be willing to pay (with perfect price discrimination) minus what they have to pay (at the market price) is the excess benefit consumers enjoy and is called consumer surplus. Producer Surplus – the amount producers receive for the total units sold (at the market price) minus what they would have received if they charged their cost for each unit. See pages 97-99 and page 158 for more info (in hardback Economics text). End of Chapter 4 in Microeconomics book.

The Costs of Taxation Consumer Surplus Before Tax: A + B + C Consumer Surplus After Tax: A Producer Surplus Before Tax: D + E + F Producer Surplus After Tax: F Deadweight Loss: C + E S1 P1–t Quantity Price P0 Q0 P1 Q1 Producer surplus S0 Demand Consumer surplus Deadweight loss tax A B C D E F

The Costs of Taxation There are other costs of taxation. Resources must be devoted by the government to administer the tax codes and by citizens and businesses to comply with it.

The Costs of Taxation Payroll accounting has become so onerous, businesses large and small often pay payroll-accounting firms to keep up with changing federal and state payroll rules and actually issue paychecks for their clients’ employees.

The Benefits of Taxation The benefits of taxation are the goods and services that government provides.

The Benefits of Taxation Some of these benefits are the part of the basic institutional structure of a market economy that allows it to work efficiently. The basic legal system is an example.

The Benefits of Taxation Still others benefits take on the qualities of a public good – national defense, for example.

The Benefits of Taxation Others benefits are provided for reasons of equity or because they provide positive externalities.

The Benefits of Taxation The policy debate about the benefits of taxation generally focuses on goods that could be supplied by the market but are publicly supplied. Education and health care are examples.

The Benefits of Taxation Measuring the benefits of these goods is difficult since they are not provided in a market setting.

The Two Principles of Taxation There are two principles of taxation widely recognized by tax experts as desirable features of a tax system. The Benefit Principle The Ability to Pay Principle

Two Principles of Taxation The benefit principle states that the individuals who receive the benefit of the good or service should pay the tax necessary to supply the good. Examples are gasoline taxes and airport taxes, both paid by travelers.

Two Principles of Taxation The ability-to-pay principle states that individuals who are most able to bear the burden of the tax should pay the tax. The best example of this is a progressive tax, such as the U.S. income tax.

Difficulty of Applying the Principles of Taxation The principles of taxation are difficult to apply because, among other reasons, the two principles often conflict.

Difficulty of Applying the Principles of Taxation In funding health care, for example, the poor should pay because they benefit the most, while under the ability-to-pay principle, the rich should pay.

Difficulty of Applying the Principles of Taxation The elasticity concept helps us to understand the tradeoffs as well as who is likely to bear the burden of a tax.

Who Bears the Burden of a Tax? The supply and demand framework gives the answer to this question when the elasticities of the supply and demand curves are considered.

Burden Depends on Relative Elasticity The person who physically pays the tax is not necessarily the person who bears the burden of the tax. The burden of the tax is rarely shared equally since the elasticities are rarely equal.

Burden Depends on Relative Elasticity Elasticity is a measure of how easy it is for the supplier and consumer to change their behavior and substitute other goods. Consequently, the more one group (consumers or suppliers) is able or willing to change its behavior relative to the other group the more likely it is to avoid the tax burden.

Burden Depends on Relative Elasticity The relative burden of the tax dictates that the more relatively inelastic the behavior of one’s group (supply or demand), the larger the tax burden one will bear.

Burden Depends on Relative Elasticity If demand is more inelastic than supply, consumers will pay the higher share. If supply is more inelastic than demand, suppliers will pay the higher share.

Burden Depends on Relative Elasticity Who pays a tax is not necessarily who bears the burden. The person who actually pays the tax does not matter, and the person who bears the burden can differ from the person who pays.

Difficulty of Applying the Principles of Taxation Since the free market system is very efficient, Governments with free market economies desire to change the behavior of suppliers and demander as little as possible. Hence, Governments should tax inelastic goods or services. In the language of consumer and producer surplus, if the government seeks to minimize welfare loss, it should tax goods with inelastic supplies and demands.

Who Bears the Burden of a Tax? Supplier Pays Tax S1 Price of luxury boats $70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 Quantity of luxury boats 600 200 400 Demand S0 tax Consumer pays Supplier pays 510

Who Bears the Burden of a Tax? Demand is inelastic S1 Price of luxury boats $70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 Quantity of luxury boats 600 200 400 S0 Demand tax Consumer pays Supplier pays 590

Who Bears the Burden of a Tax? Consumer Pays Tax Price of luxury boats $70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 Quantity of luxury boats 600 200 400 D0 S0 D1 Consumer pays Supplier pays tax 510

Tax Incidence and Current Policy Debates The analysis of tax incidence is helpful when discussing current policy debates.

Social Security Taxes Social Security taxes are payroll taxes for a government-run retirement program. Both employer and employee contribute the same percentage of before-tax wages to the Social Security fund.

Social Security Taxes The fact that both the employer and employee contribute the same percentage does not mean they share the burden equally.

Social Security Taxes On average, labor supply tends to be less elastic than labor demand, so the Social Security tax burden is primarily on employees.

Sales Taxes Sales taxes are those paid by retailers on the basis of their sales revenue. Since sales taxes are broadly defined, consumers find it hard to substitute. Demand is inelastic so consumers bear the greater burden of the tax.

Sales Taxes Consumers can now buy on the internet where sales are not taxed so that retail stores will bear a greater burden of the tax levied on their sales.

Government Intervention Taxation is but one way in which government affects our lives. Other forms of government intervention include price controls.

Government Intervention as Implicit Taxation Government intervention can be seen as a combination tax and subsidy.

Price Ceilings A price ceiling is a government-set price below market equilibrium price. It is an implicit tax on producers and an implicit subsidy to consumers. This causes a loss in producer and consumer surpluses that is identical to the welfare loss from taxation.

Effect of Price Ceiling Quantity Price Consumer surplus Supply Demand Deadweight loss Q1 P0 Q0 P1 Price ceiling Producer surplus

Price Floors A price floor is a government-set price above equilibrium price. It is a tax on consumers and a subsidy to producers. Price floors transfer consumer surplus to producers.

Effect of Price Floor Quantity Price Consumer surplus Supply Demand P2 Deadweight loss P0 Q0 Producer surplus

The Difference Between Taxes and Price Controls The effects of taxation and price controls are similar. They are different in that price ceilings create shortages and taxes do not. Shortages also create black markets. Both taxes and price controls create deadweight loss.

A Price Ceiling with Forced Supply The draft is an example of a price ceiling with forced supply. The draft is a military conscription law that requires young men to serve a set period of time in the armed forces at whatever pay the government chooses.

A Price Ceiling with Forced Supply A draft must be imposed when the wage offered by the army is below equilibrium and the quantity of soldiers supplied is below the quantity demanded.

A Price Ceiling with Forced Supply Those conscripted are forced to accept a lower wage than they would otherwise get, which is a transfer of surplus to the government.

Effect of a Draft on Surplus Quantity of soldiers Wage Demand Supply QD=Draft Surplus transferred to the government We Deadweight loss caused by draft W0 QS

Rent Seeking, Politics, and Elasticities Price controls reduce total producer and consumer surpluses. Governments institute them because people care more about their own surplus than they do about total surplus.

Rent Seeking, Politics, and Elasticities Price controls exist because of political power. If farmers have political power, they want crop subsidies or price supports. If renters have it, they want rent controls.

Rent Seeking, Politics, and Elasticities An enormous amount of time and money is spent in the political arena to increase one’s surplus at the expense of another group. This activity is called rent seeking behavior – the effort to transfer surplus from one group to another.

Rent Seeking, Politics, and Elasticities Public choice economists integrate an economic analysis of politics with their analysis of the economy. They argue that often when all the rent seeking and tax consequences are netted out, there is no net gain to the public.

Rent Seeking, Politics, and Elasticities There is a greater incentive for rent-seeking when demand and supply is inelastic.

Inelastic Demand and Incentives to Restrict Supply When demand is inelastic, producers have incentives to restrict supply. Farming is an example.

Inelastic Demand and Incentives to Restrict Supply Advances in farming productivity increases supply but lowers prices. Since food has few substitutes, its demand is inelastic. Inelastic demand means that prices fall faster than a rise in quantity sold. Revenues fall, and farmers are worse off.

Inelastic Demand and Incentives to Restrict Supply There is an enormous incentive for farmers to seek a price floor from government or through a producer cooperative.

Inelastic Demand and Incentives to Restrict Supply Quantity Price S0 Demand P0 Q0 Total Revenue Revenue Gained Revenue Lost S1 P1 Q1

Inelastic Supply and Incentives to Restrict Prices Consumers are also rent seekers not just businesses. When supply is inelastic, consumers have incentives to restrict prices.

Inelastic Supply and Incentives to Restrict Prices When supply is inelastic and demand goes up, prices jump causing consumers to lobby for price controls. Rent control in New York City is an example.

Price Floors and Elasticity of Demand and Supply Price floor with elastic supply and demand Quantity Price Supply Demand PF QD QS PE

Price Floors and Elasticity of Demand and Supply Price floor with elastic supply and inelastic demand Quantity Price Supply Demand PF QD QS PE

Price Floors and Elasticity of Demand and Supply Price floor with inelastic supply and demand Quantity Price Demand Supply PF QD QS PE

The Long-Run/Short-Run Problem of Price Controls The problem of price controls worsen from the short run to the long run. In the long run, supply and demand tend to be much more elastic than in the short run.

The Long-Run/Short-Run Problem of Price Controls So in the short run there will be small effects from the price controls, but huge effects in the long run.

The Long-Run/Short-Run Problem of Price Controls In the face of price controls, potential new competitors hate to enter the market thereby strangling supply Vacancy rates drop as potential new renters scramble to find shrinking affordable housing.

Long-Run and Short-Run Effects of Price Controls Short run supply D0 D1 Long run supply P1 Q1 P2 Q2 P0 Q0 Price ceiling Q3 Shortage Quantity

Taxation and Government Intervention End of Chapter 7