Power and Influence in the Workplace McGraw-Hill/Irwin McShane/Von Glinow OB 5e Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Meaning of Power Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others Can involve the “potential” to use it – not the actual use of it People have power they don’t use – and may not know they possess It’s a perception 10-2

Bases of Power French and Raven (1959) argue that power can be based on one’s position in an organization (that is, level or title in the organizational hierarchy): Legitimate (Normative) Reward Coercive Power can also be based on one’s relationship with others and his or her behavior towards them: Expert Referent (Charismatic) 10-3

Model of Power in Organizations Over Others Sources (Bases) of Power Contingencies of Power Legitimate Reward Coercive Expert Referent French and Raven (1959) 10-4

Sources of Power Legitimate An understanding or belief that people in certain titles roles can request certain behaviors of others Based on job descriptions and mutual agreement Power comes from one’s formal position of command and/or his or her decision-making authority; however, people are obeying the position – not the person – and therefore, his or her power can dissolve with the loss of that position or title 10-5

Sources of Power Legitimate The ability to control the allocation of rewards and/or to remove negative sanctions, threats, or discomfort However, the rewards must be valued Rewards include bonuses, raises, promotions, recognition, or protection Operates upward as well as downward Reward 10-6

Sources of Power Legitimate Forceful use of threats, punishment, or the withholding of rewards to gain compliance (usually against one’s will) Includes use of reprimands, probation, demotions, suspensions, or firing Can easily be abused Operates upward as well as downward Peer pressure is a form of coercive power Reward Coercive 10-7

Sources of Power Legitimate Based on one’s knowledge, skill, ability, or expertise It is particularly respected if it is unique, rare, or valuable to organizational survival Often linked to trust and respect in an organization Can be a problem if one is “too specialized” or withholds information More employees can hold expert power over their employers in a knowledge economy Reward Coercive Expert 10-8

Sources of Power Legitimate Power wielded through “likability,” charisma, respect, or fame The person is often looked up to as a role model; type of power often wielded by celebrities – can be gained very quickly (and lost just as quickly) In an abusive way, it can be used to isolate someone socially Reward Coercive Expert Referent 10-9

Employee Responses to Power 10-10

Information and Power Power based on control over information flow Based on legitimate power (and maybe some expert power) Relates to the formal communication network Information is the basis for making effective decisions – thus, those who control the flow of information often have the most power 10-11

Power Through Control of Information Flow Wheel formation All-channels formation This person has high information control These people individually have low information control 10-12

Contingencies of Power over others Sources of Power Contingencies of Power Substitutability Centrality Discretion Visibility Uncertainty 10-13

Substitutability Refers to other sub-units’ abilities to perform activities of another sub-unit The lower the substitutability of a sub-unit, the greater its power A sub-unit can increase its power by assuming responsibility for those activities most critical to the organization 10-14

Centrality Sub-units most central to the flow of work acquire power A sub-unit that can affect other sub-units has some degree of centrality and power A sub-unit also possesses power if its activities have a more immediate impact than those of other sub-units The higher the pervasiveness and immediacy of the work flow of a sub-unit, the greater its power 10-15

Discretion and Visibility The freedom to exercise judgment Rules limit discretion (and thus, rules limit power) Also can be a perception (that is, acting as if you have discretion) Visibility Symbols communicate your power source(s) Educational diplomas Clothing, tools, equipment, etc. (stethoscope around neck) Salience Location – Others are more aware of your presence 10-16

Coping with Uncertainty Coping with uncertainty gives a sub-unit power via… Prevention – A sub-unit works toward reducing the probability that some future problem or difficulty will arise Forecasting (Information) – Timely planning and accurate forecasting or prediction based on data interpretation and use of key resources Absorption – Taking on another sub-unit’s issues or problems 10-17

Networking and Power Cultivating social relationships with others to accomplish one’s goals Increases power through: Social capital Referent power Visibility and centrality 10-18

Impression Management Behaviors individuals use to… Preserve their self-image Influence the ways in which others perceive them Create a favorable impression with important others in the workplace 10-19

Impression Management – Public Opinion 10-20

Upward Impression Management Favorable upward impressions: Job-focused (manipulating information about one’s job performance) Supervisor-focused (praising or doing favors for the boss) Self-focused (being polite and nice) Unfavorable upward impressions: Decreasing performance Not working up to one’s potential Withdrawing Displaying a bad attitude Broadcasting one’s limitations 10-21

Impression Management Tactics Self-Presentation Smiling Making eye contact Positive tone of voice Appropriate dress High level of energy Other-Enhancement Doing favors for others Using flattery Showing interest in others Being an active listener Agreeing with others’ opinions 10-22

Influencing Others Influence – Any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior Applies one or more power bases Process through which people achieve organizational objectives Operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy 10-23

Principles of Influence Liking – People tend to like those who like them; the more we like the other person, the more likely we’ll comply with their requests Social Proof – People tend to follow those most like themselves; role models and peer pressure are powerful forces Reciprocity – The belief that both good and bad deeds should be repaid in kind 10-24

Principles of Influence Authority – People tend to defer to and respect credible experts Scarcity – Requests that emphasize scarcity, or the fact that some object, opportunity, or outcome will soon no longer be available, are difficult to resist Consistency – Once individuals have stated a commitment, they tend to act in accordance with that commitment 10-25

Types of Influence Silent Authority Assertiveness Following requests without overt influence Based on legitimate power and role modeling Common in high power distance cultures Assertiveness Actively applying legitimate and coercive power (“vocal authority”) Reminding, confronting, checking, and threatening 10-26

Types of Influence Information Control Coalition Formation Manipulating others’ access to information Withholding, filtering, or re-arranging information Coalition Formation Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone Pools resources/power Legitimizes the issue Power through social identity 10-27

Types of Influence Upward Appeal Persuasion Appealing to higher authority Includes appealing to firm’s goals Alliance or perceived alliance with higher status person Persuasion Logic, facts, emotional appeals Depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience 10-28

Ingratiation/ Impression Management Types of Influence Ingratiation/ Impression Management Increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, the target person Exchange Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance Includes negotiation and networking 10-29

Consequences of Influence Tactics People oppose the behavior desired by the influencer; request will be ignored, resisted, or disregarded altogether Motivated by external sources (rewards or punishments) to implement request Identify with and highly motivated to implement request Resistance Compliance Commitment 10-30

Consequences of Influence Tactics Hard Influence Tactics Silent authority Upward appeal Coalition formation Information control Assertiveness Persuasion Ingratiation and Impression management Exchange Soft Influence Tactics Resistance Compliance Commitment 10-31

Workplace Bullying Repeated non-physical, health-impairing psychological mistreatment that falls outside discriminatory harassment Affects turnover, productivity, and has a potential for litigation How to deal with a bully: Have a high-ranking supervisor and/or HR representative clamp down on the bully by… Stating the behavior will not be tolerated Noting that he/she will be monitored Stress that he/she will be fired if the behavior continues 10-32

Obedience Exercising power in an authoritative way isn’t the only way power can be exerted Power is often exerted by individuals who have only minimal or no actual power An individual may be able to influence others simply because he or she is perceived to have power 10-33

Obedience Defined as compliance due to one’s real or perceived authority Requests are often perceived as “commands” Milgram studied obedience to orders that inflict harm 10-34

Milgram’s Study of Obedience Roles of “teacher”(S) and “learner” (A) (but learner was always a confederate) Teacher watched learner being strapped into chair and connected to shock box Learner expresses concern over his “heart condition” Teacher leaves room with experimenter (E) to begin the study 10-35

Milgram’s Study of Obedience Shock box ranged from 15 to 450 volts – labeled “slight shock” to “XXX” Teacher was told to give higher shocks for every mistake the learner made As the shocks intensified, the learner protested more and more Experimenter continues to request obedience – even if the teacher hesitates or questions it Remember…the shocks were not real! 10-36

Milgram’s Study of Obedience XXX (435-450) Percentage of subjects who obeyed experimenter 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Slight (15-60) Moderate (75-120) Strong (135-180) Very strong (195-240) Intense (255-300) Extreme intensity (315-360) Danger severe (375-420) Shock levels (in volts) The majority of subjects continued to obey to the end 10-37

Variations on Milgram’s Study 10-38

Explaining Milgram’s Findings Were these people abnormal? Numerous replications with a variety of people shows anyone is capable of this Are people, in general, sadistic? Videotapes of Milgram’s subjects show extreme distress Although 84% later said they were glad to have participated and fewer than 2% said they were sorry, there are still many ethical problems with such a study 10-39

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment Twenty-four male college students randomly assigned to role of “guard” or “prisoner” After a relatively boring first day of settling into their roles, the prisoners became cagey and insolent and the guards became controlling and sadistic Stopped after only 6 days because of escalating violence and abuse 10-40

Deadly Acts of Obedience My Lai Massacre 350 – 500+ dead Holocaust 6 million – 17 million dead Rwanda 800,000 – 1 million dead Jonestown 900+ dead 10-41

Organizational Politics The intentional act of influence to protect or enhance one’s own self-interests in an organization May be individual- or group-focused May or may not parallel organizational goals Political activity is self-conscious and intentional Coalitions sometimes form, which are informal, temporary, and single-issue alliances 10-42

Conditions for Organizational Politics Tolerance of Politics Scarce Resources Conditions Supporting Organizational Politics Organizational Change Complex and Ambiguous Decisions 10-43

Minimizing Political Behavior Screen out overly political individuals at the initial hiring stage Introduce clear rules for acquiring scarce resources Utilize effective organizational change practices Suppress any norms or attitudes that support or tolerate self-serving behaviors Leaders need to model organizational citizenship Give employees more control over their work Communicate – keep employees informed (“open book” management) Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes An ethics filter – the “how would it look on TV?” test Publicly recognize and reward employees who get results without playing political games 10-44