19.1 Chapter 19 Network Layer: Logical Addressing Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Task of Network Layer (1) Host to host Communication Computers through out the world can communicate with one another. HOW?? Through the INTERNET The packet transmitted by the sending computer may pass through several LANs or WANs before reaching the destination computer. 19.2

Task of Network Layer (2) For this level of communication we need a global addressing scheme called Logical Addressing. We use the term IP address to refer to logical address in the network layer of the TCP/ IP Protocol suit. Currently IPv4 (IP version 4) addresses are used. 19.3

IPv4 ADDRESSES An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet. Address Space Notations Classful Addressing Classless Addressing Network Address Translation (NAT) Topics discussed in this section:

19.5 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long. Note

19.6 The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal. Note

ADDRESS SPACE The number of addresses that can be allocated Note The address space of IPv4 is 2 32 or 4,294,967,296.

Format of IPv4 Address There are two prevalent notations to show IPv4 address: Binary Notation Dotted Decimal Notation 19.8

19.9 Figure 19.1 Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

19.10 Numbering systems are reviewed in Appendix B. Note

19.11 Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation. Example 19.1 Solution We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation.

19.12 Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation. Example 19.2 Solution We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent (see Appendix B).

19.13 Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses. Example 19.3 Solution a. There must be no leading zero (045). b. There can be no more than four numbers. c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255. d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed.

Two types of IP Addressing Classful Addressing Classless Addressing 19.14

Classful Addressing IPv4 Addressing, at its inception, used the concept of Classes. Classful addressing had a number of drawbacks so it became obsolete. Now we use Classless Addressing

19.16 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Note

19.17 Figure 19.2 Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

19.18 Find the class of each address. a b c d Example 19.4 Solution a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address. b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address. c. The first byte is 14; the class is A. d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.

Netid & Hostid In Classful Addressing, an IP address in Class A, B, or C is divided into netid and hostid NetidHostid NetidHostid Netid HostidNetid A C B

Classes & Blocks In classful addressing each class is divided into a fixed number of blocks with each block having a fixed size. Block actually mean ‘network’. Block Size mean the number of hosts in a network

19.21 Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

19.22 In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted. Note

Mask A mask is a 32 bit number that help us find the netid and the hostid. A mask can be in binary or decimal dotted notation

19.24 Table 19.2 Default masks for classful addressing

Subnetting & Supernetting Division of one large network into several smaller networks is called Subnetting. In Supernetting an organization can combine several class C blocks to create a larger range of addresses. In other words, several networks are combined to create a ‘super network’

19.26 Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is replaced with classless addressing. Note

Classless Addressing In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to the internet, it is granted a block(range) of addresses. The size of the block(the number of addresses) varies based on the nature and size of the entity. For Example: A household may be given only two addresses; a large organization may be given thousands of addresses. A ISP, may be given thousands or hundreds of thousands based on the number of customers it may serve

Restrictions on Classless Addressing To simplify the handling of addresses, the internet authorities impose three restrictions on classless address blocks. the address in the block must be contiguous, one after another. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (1,2,4,8,….) The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses

19.29 Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business that needs 16 addresses. We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block. The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is a power of 2 (16 = 2 4 ), and the first address is divisible by 16. The first address, when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16 results in 215,024,210. Example 19.5

19.30 Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.31 In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t /n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines the mask. Note

19.32 The first address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s. Note

19.33 A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know that one of the addresses is /28. What is the first address in the block? Solution The binary representation of the given address is If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get or This is actually the block shown in Figure Example 19.6

19.34 The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s. Note

19.35 Find the last address for the block in Example Solution The binary representation of the given address is If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get or This is actually the block shown in Figure Example 19.7

19.36 The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the formula 2 32−n. Note

19.37 Find the number of addresses in Example Example 19.8 Solution The value of n is 28, which means that number of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.38 Another way to find the first address, the last address, and the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32- bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is particularly useful when we are writing a program to find these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can be represented as (twenty-eight 1s and four 0s). Find a. The first address b. The last address c. The number of addresses. Example 19.9

19.39 Solution a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s; the result is 0 otherwise. Example 19.9 (continued)

19.40 b. The last address can be found by ORing the given addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The complement of a number is found by changing each 1 to 0 and each 0 to 1. Example 19.9 (continued)

19.41 c. The number of addresses can be found by complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal number, and adding 1 to it. Example 19.9 (continued)

19.42 Figure 19.4 A network configuration for the block /28

Example 1: In a block of addresses, we know the IP address of one host is /26. Find out first address, last address and total number of addresses

Network Address The first address in a block is normally not assigned to any device; it is used as the network address that represents the organization to the rest of the world. Note

19.45 Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address Two level Hierarchy of ip address

19.46 Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level hierarchical structure: the leftmost n bits (prefix) define the network; the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host. Note

Three levels of hierarchy: Subnetting An organization that is granted a large block of addresses may want to create clusters of networks (called subnets) and divide the addresses between the different subnets. The rest of the world still sees the organization as one entity; however, internally there are several subnets. All the messages are sent to the routers address that connects the organization to the rest of the internet. The router routes the message to the appropriate subnet

Network Mask & Subnet Mask The organization to which block of addresses is granted has a mask called network mask. This network mask determines the network address. Each sub network inside the organization also has a mask called subnet mask. The subnet mask determines the sub network address

Example: Suppose an organization is given a block /26, which contains 64 addresses. The organization has three offices and needs to divide the addresses into three subblocks of 32,16 and 16 addresses. Find the subnet masks???? 19.49

Solution: Suppose the mask for the first subnet is n1, then 2^32-n1 must be 32, which means that n1=27. Suppose the mask for the second subnet is n2, then 2^32-n2 must be 16, which means that n2=28. Suppose the mask for the third subnet is n3, then 2^32-n3 must be 16, which means that n3=

Solution (2) This means that we have the subnet masks 27,28,28 and the organization mask or network mask is 26. The above configuration is shown in figure

19.52 Figure 19.7 Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network

More levels of hierarchy The structure of classless addressing does not restrict the number of hierarchical levels. An organization can further divide their subnets and the process goes on. Example: Its example can be seen in case of ISPs. National ISP  Regional ISP  Local ISP  Organization  Subnets 19.53

19.54 An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with /16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as follows: a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses. b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addresses. c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses. Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are still available after these allocations. Example 19.10

19.55 Solution Figure 19.9 shows the situation. Example (continued) Group 1 For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This means that 8 bits are needed to define each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses are

19.56 Example (continued) Group 2 For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This means that 7 bits are needed to define each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are

19.57 Example (continued) Group 3 For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This means that 6 bits are needed to each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536 Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960 Number of available addresses: 24,576

19.58 Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

Total distribution Number of granted addresses to the ISP= Number of allocated addresses by the ISP= Number of available addresses=

Example 2 An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with /22. the ISP wants to distribute these blocks to 100 organizations with each organization receiving just 8 addresses. Design the subblocks and give the slash notation for each subblock. Find out how many addresses are still available after these allocations

NAT (Network Address Translation) The number of home users and small businesses that want to use the internet is increasing. The addresses assigned to ISP are getting limited. The shortage of IP addresses is only one reason to use NAT

WHAT IS NAT? Network Address Translation allows a single device, such as a router, to act as an agent between the Internet (or "public network") and a local (or "private") network. This means that only a single, unique IP address is required to represent an entire group of computers. In other words NAT enables a user to have a large set of addresses internally and one address or a small set of addresses, externally

NAT Addresses Internet authorities have reserved three sets of addresses as private address   2^   2 ^   2^16 Everyone knows that these addresses are reserved for private networks. They are unique inside the organization but not unique globally

Private Network The private network has only one single connection to the global internet through a gateway(router/ computer) that runs the NAT software. An organization can use an address out of this set without permission from the internet authorities

A Nat Implementation 19.65

Address Translation All the out going packets go through the NAT Router, which replaces the source address in the packet with the global NAT address. All the incoming packets also pass through the NAT router, which replaces the destination address in the packet (Nat router Global address) with the appropriate private address

Translation table Translating the source for outgoing packets is straightforward. The problem arises when we have an incoming transmission i.e. from the internet to the private network. To solve this problem there is a translation table inside the router Private external

IPv6 Addresses Despite all short-term solutions, such as classless addressing, DHCP and NAT, address depletion is still a problem for the internet. This and other problems in the IP protocol itself such as lack of accommodation for real time audio and video transmission and encryption and authentication of data for some applications, have been the motivation for IPv

IPv6 Structure 19.69

Address abbreviation 19.70

More Abbreviation 19.71