Chapter 9 Personal ethics

Ethics and ethical theories Ethics is concerned with right and wrong and how conduct should be judged to be good or bad. Ethical theories underpin all business activity as well as guiding behavior.

Questions to ethics Question NO. 1: Do ethics change overtime and place? Question NO. 2: Should the consequences of the actions be considered when you make ethical decisions? Question NO. 3: What thought process do people use when making ethical decisions?

Do ethics change? Yes! Ethical relativism /non-cognitivism: there is a wide variety of acceptable ethical beliefs and practices exist. All moral statements are subjective and arise from the culture, belief or emotion from the speaker. Influencing factors on ethics

Do ethics change? No! Ethical absolutism/cognitivism : there is an unchanging set of ethical principles that will apply in all situations, at all times and in all societies. Moral truths are objective and universally applicable. The norms, principles and values

Dec. 2010. 1 (b) Distinguish between absolutist and relativist approaches to ethics.

Dec. 2010. 1 (b) Absolutism and relativism An absolutist ethical stance is when it is assumed that there is an unchanging set of ethical principles which should always be obeyed regardless of the situation or any other pressures or factors that may be present. Typically described in universalist ways, absolutist ethics tends to be expressed in terms such as ‘it is always right to’, ‘it is never right to’ or ‘it is always wrong to’.

Dec. 2010. 1 (b) Absolutism and relativism Relativist ethical assumptions are those that assume that real ethical situations are more complicated than absolutists allow for. It is the view that there are a variety of acceptable ethical beliefs and practices and that the right and most appropriate belief depends on the situation. The best outcome is arrived at by examining the situation and making ethical assessments based on the best outcomes in that situation.

The consequences be considered? No! Deontological ethics: concerned with the application of absolute, universal ethical principles to arrive at rules of conduct, and the outcomes of the actions are not relevant. Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 德国古典哲学的开创者和奠基人 1770年之前，主要研究自然科学 1770年之后，主要研究哲学 三大批判：《纯粹理性批判》（1781），《实践理性批判》（1788），《判断力批判》（1790） 伦理学贡献：意志为自己立法，人类辨别是非的能力是与生俱来的，而不是从后天获得的。

Kant’s ethical theory Imperatives Hypothetical imperative(假言命令) Categorical imperative(定言命令)

Kant’s ethical theory Principle of consistency(一致) ‘So act that the maxim of your will could hold as a principle establishing universal law’ Principle of human dignity（人的尊严） ‘Do not treat people simply as means to an end but as an end in themselves’ Principle of autonomy（自律） ‘So act as though you were through you maxims a law-making member of the kingdom of ends’

The consequences be considered? Yes! Teleological ethics: to make moral judgments about courses of action by reference to their outcomes or consequences, benefit or harm becomes a question. Utilitarianism Egoism

Teleological ethics Utilitarianism: there is a “greatest good” principle – greatest happiness of the greatest number. (Pareto optimality and Pareto improvement in microeconomics) Egoism: an act is ethically justified if decision-makers freely decide to pursue their own short-term desires or their long-term interests. (Adam Smith, the author of <An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations>)

Dec, 2008, 4 (c) Assess Mr. Hogg’s belief that employing child labor is ‘always ethically wrong’ from the deontological and teleological ethical perspectives.

Dec, 2008, 4 (c) Deontological perspective In the case, Mr. Hogg is demonstrating a deontological position on child labor by saying that it is ‘always’ wrong. He is adopting an absolutist stance in arguing that there are no situations in which child labor might be ethically acceptable. The deontological view is that an act is right or wrong in itself and does not depend upon any other considerations. If child labor is wrong in one situation, it follows that it is wrong in all situations because of the Kantian principle of generalisability. Because child labor is wrong and potentially exploitative in some situations, the deontological position says that it must be assumed to be wrong in all situations. The fact that it may cause favorable outcomes in some situations does not make it ethically right, because the deontological position is not situational and the quality of the outcome is not taken into account.

Dec, 2008, 4 Teleological perspective According to the teleological perspective, an act is right or wrong depending on the favorableness of the outcome. It is sometimes called the consequentialist perspective because the consequences of the action are considered more important than the act itself. In the teleological perspective, ethics is situational and not absolute. Therefore child labor is morally justified if the outcome is favorable. The economic support of a child’s family by provision of wages for family support might be considered to be a favorable outcome that justifies child labor. There is a ethical trade-off between the importance of the family income from child labor and the need to avoid exploitation and interfere with the child’s education. (then discuss utilitarianism and egoism)

The thought process Kohlberg’s cognitive moral development theories: the thought processes people go through when making ethical decisions. How the decision is reached? Three levels of moral development. Individuals at different levels of moral development may make the same moral decisions, but they will do so as a result of different reasoning processes.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) 美国儿童发展心理学家，“道德发展阶段”理论的提出者。 认知结构主义学派代表人物，认为“学校道德教育的目的是促进学生道德判断能力的发展”。 经典道德两难故事：汉斯偷药。

Levels of CMD Pre-conventional level Conventional level Punishment-obedience Instrumental relativist Conventional level Good boy-nice girl Law and order Post conventional level Social contract Universal ethical principle

June, 2011, 1 (b) Explain Kohlberg’s three level or moral development.

June, 2011, 1 (b) Explain Kohlberg’s levels Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is a framework of classifying a range of responses to ethical situations. Kohlberg argued that these were indicative of the moral development of the moral development of the individual. Kohlberg identified three levels that people can operate at. At the preconventional level of moral reasoning, morality is conceived of in terms of rewards, punishments and instrumental motivation. Those demonstrating intolerance of norms and regulations in preference for self-serving motives are typically preconventional.

June, 2011, 1 At the conventional level, morality is understood in terms of compliance with either or both of peer pressure/social expectations or regulations, laws and guidelines. A high degree of compliance is assumed to be a highly moral position. At the postconventional level, morality is understood in terms of conformance with perceived ‘higher’ or ‘universal’ ethical principles. Postconventional assumptions often chanllege existing regulatory regimes and social norms and so postconventional behavior can often be costly in personal terms.

Influences on ethics Ethics are not absolute, and they can be influenced by many factors. Individual factors: the characters of the person who make the ethical decision.(USA) Situational factors: the features of the context which determine whether the individual will make an ethical decision.(The Europe)

Individual factors Age and gender National and cultural beliefs Individualism/ collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/ femininity Education and employment Psychological factors Locus of control Personal integrity Moral imagination

Situational factors Issue – related factors: the nature of the issue and how it is viewed in the organization Moral intensity: the ethically significance of the issue Moral framing: setting the context for how issues are perceived in the organization.

Situational factors Context – related factors: the expectations and demands that will be placed on the people Systems of reward Authority Bureaucracy Work roles Organizational field Organizational culture National and culture context

AAA model What are the facts of the case? What are the ethical issues in the case? What are the norms, principles and values related to the case? What are the alternative courses of action? What is the best course of action? What are the consequences of each possible causes of action? What is the decision? (Dec, 2009, 1, (a))

Tucker’s 5 question model Profitable? Legal? Fair? Right? Sustainable? (Dec, 2008, 1, (a) Assess the secrecy option using Tucker’s model for decision making.)