FIGURE 12.1 Schematic surface circulation of the Arctic and Nordic Seas, including some of the major polynyas (gray shading) and the Greenland Sea and Iceland Sea deep convection sites (dark gray). Topography as in Figure 2.11, where place names can be found. Heavy lines indicate the principal circulation components, generally with larger transports than those depicted with finer lines. Acronyms: EGC, East Greenland Current; EIC, East Iceland Current; IC, Irminger Current; IFF, Iceland- Faroe Front; JMC, Jan Mayen Current; NAC, Norwegian Atlantic Current; and NIC, North Irminger Current. (After Rudels, 2001; Loeng et al., 2005; Rudels et al., 2010; Østerhus & Gammelsrød, 1999; and Straneo & Saucier, & Polynya locations from IAPP (2010) and Martin (2001)). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.2 Overall schematic of (a) circulation, (b) water mass layers and transformation sites, and (c) water masses in potential temperature- salinity. Deep convection in the Greenland Sea in (b) has been replaced by mid-depth convection since the 1980s. Acronyms in (a): EGC, East Greenland Current; WSC, West Spitsbergen Current. Acronyms in (c): AW, Atlantic Water; AIW, Arctic Intermediate Water; ASW, Arctic Surface Water; DW, Deep Water; PIW, Polar Intermediate Water; PW, Polar Water. Source: From Aagaard, Swift, & Carmack (1985); amended by Schlichtholz and Houssais (2002). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.3 (a) Potential temperature (°C) and (b) salinity in the Fram Strait in See Figure 2.11 for location of the strait. Source: From Mauritzen (1996). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.4 (a) Potential temperature (°C) and (b) salinity across the southern Greenland Sea at 73.5°N in Source: From Mauritzen (1996). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.5 (a) The Odden ice tongue off the east coast of Greenland, February 12, Source: From Wadhams et al. (1996). (b) Greenland Sea chimney region with tomographic array location. (c) Mixed layer depth (with contours on bottom plane). Source: From Morawitz et al. (1996). (d) Potential temperature (°C, contour intervals of 0.2°C) time series at the array. Source: From Morawitz, Cornuelle, and Worcester (1996). Figures b, c, and d are © by the American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. See also Figure S12.3 in the online supplement. TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.6 Schematic circulation in Hudson Bay and, peripherally, Baffin Bay. Source: From Straneo and Saucier (2008). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.7aFIGURE 12.7b (a) Track of the Fram ( ). (b) The ship was intentionally frozen into the ice in 1893 and drifted with the pack until © Source: From Frammuseet (2003). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.8 Annual mean Arctic sea ice motion from from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) passive microwave satellite data (extended from Emery, Fowler, & Maslanik, 1997; data from NSIDC, 2008a). Monthly means are shown in Figure S12.4 seen on the textbook Web site. TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.9 Mean sea level pressure ( ) with mean ice buoy velocities for (a) winter (January-March) and (b) summer (July-September). ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Rigor, Wallace, and Colony (2002). (c) Mean wind vectors from ECMWF for Source: From Zhang and Hunke (2001). Mean sea level pressure maps from Bitz et al. (2002) are also shown in Figure S12.5 seen on the textbook Web site. TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE Circulation schematics. (a) Subsurface Atlantic and intermediate layers of the Arctic Ocean and the Nordic Seas. Convection sites in the Greenland and Iceland Seas, and in the Irminger and Labrador Seas are also shown (light blue), as is a collection point for brine-rejected waters from the Barents Sea. Source: From Rudels et al. (2010). This figure can also be found in the color insert. (b) Deep circulation; circled crosses indicate entry sites from dense shelf waters, and the Lomonosov Ridge overflow site. Source: From Rudels (2001). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.11a-d Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas: (a) potential temperature (°C), (b) salinity, (c) potential density referenced to the sea surface, (d) potential density referenced to 2000 dbar. (e) station locations. Oxygen and CFC-11 are shown in Figure Data sets were collected between 2000 and After Aagaard et al. (1985). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.11e TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas: (a) potential temperature (°C), (b) salinity, (c) potential density referenced to the sea surface, (d) potential density referenced to 2000 dbar. (e) station locations. Oxygen and CFC-11 are shown in Figure Data sets were collected between 2000 and After Aagaard et al. (1985).

FIGURE Arctic Ocean: (a) Potential temperature and (b) salinity profiles for the Canadian (dashed) and Eurasian Basins (solid). Station locations are shown in Figure 12.17a: dashed profiles are stations CaB and MaB and the solid profile is NaB. (c) Expanded potential temperature and salinity profile in the Canadian Basin (CaB in Figure 12.17a). After Steele et al. (2004). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE 12.13aFIGURE 12.13b (a) Schematic circulation of summer Bering Strait Water (blue) and Alaskan Coastal Water (red) during the positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation (Chapter S15 on the textbook Web site). (b) Temperature (°C) of the shallow temperature maximum layer, which lies between 50 and 100 m depth, in the Canadian Basin. This figure can also be seen in the color insert. Source: From Steele et al. (2004). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE Salinity along a section in the Chukchi Sea (March 1982), including a high salinity bottom layer created by brine rejection. Source: From Aagaard et al. (1985). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE AtlanticWater in the Arctic. (a) Temperature maximum part of T-S diagram for core method analysis of flow direction for AtlanticWater, (b) circulation inferred from successive erosion of core shown in (a) stations 1 to 6, (c) depth, and (d) potential temperature (°C) of the Atlantic Water temperature maximum in the 1970s. (c, d) are ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission; Polyakov et al. (2004) and Polyakov et al. (2010). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE Vertical section across the Arctic and Nordic Seas. The section extends from the Chukchi Sea north of Bering Strait to the North Pole to Svalbard and Iceland (on the right). Corresponding sections of potential temperature, salinity and potential density were shown in Figure 12.11, along with a station location map. (a) Oxygen (  mol/kg), and (b) CFC- 11 (pmol/kg). Station locations are shown in Figure 12.11e. Vertical sections from the Canadian Basin (Swift et al., 1997) and the Eurasian Basin (Schauer et al., 2002) are shown in Figure S12.6 on the textbook Web site. TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE (a) Station map (1994 and 2001), (b) salinity, (c) potential temperature (°C), and (d) potential temperature- salinity. Acronyms: CaB, Canada Basin; MaB, Makarov Basin; NP, North Pole; AmB, Amundsen Basin; NaB, Nansen Basin; WSC, West Spitsbergen Current; GrS, Greenland Sea; IcS, Iceland Sea; and NAC, Norwegian Atlantic Current. This figure can also be found in the color insert. Expanded from Timmermans and Garrett (2006). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

FIGURE (a) Schematic of bottom water connections, including approximate sill depths. Potential density is relative to 2000 dbar. Arrows indicate mass fluxes overflowing into the basins and bottom arrows indicate geothermal heat flux. (b) Potential temperature (°C) and (c) salinity at stations in the Makarov and Canada Basins (MB and CB, respectively). The Makarov station “MB” is MaB in Figure 12.17a. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Timmermans and Garrett (2006). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Volume transport budget. Red and orange are upper ocean inflows. Green is upper ocean outflow. Blue is intermediate/deep outflow. Transports are listed in Sverdrups. See Figure S12.7 on the textbook Web site for the color version. TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved FIGURE 12.19

Ice concentration in 1979 in: (a) late winter (March) and (b) late summer (September). Source: From NSIDC (2009a). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved FIGURE 12.20

Arctic ice ages: (a) 2004 and (b) cross-section of ice age classes (right) as a function of time (Hovmöller diagram), extending along the transect across the Arctic from the Canadian Archipelago to the Kara Sea shown in (a). This figure can also be seen in the color insert. Source: Extended from Fowler et al. (2004). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved FIGURE 12.21

Polynyas in the Canadian Archipelago. Predominantly latent heat polynyas: North Water, Cape Bathurst. Tidally mixed polynyas: Committee Bay, Dundas Island, Lambert Channel and possibly Queens Channel, Bellot Strait, Fury, and Hecla Strait. Polynyas in the Barents, Kara, and Laptev Seas are illustrated in Figures S12.9- S12.11 on the textbook Web site. Source: From Hannah et al. (2009). TALLEY Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved FIGURE 12.22