C2 in a lesson

Between metal & non-metal Metal loses electron to non-metal so both have full outer shell Electrostatic attraction between +ve & -ve ions = bond Regular structures with high MPs & BPs because... Can conduct electricity... Ionic Bonding:

Non-metal to non-metal Shared pair of electrons to gain full outer shell Creates strong bonds Molecules are held together by weak inter- molecular forces, which are overcome when the substance is melted / boiled at low temperatures. No overall charge. Simple Covalent Bonding:

3 C-C covalent bonds Strong bonds Layer structure – can slide Each C has 1 delocalised electron so can conduct electricity & heat Giant Covalent Bonding: 4 C-C strong covalent bonds Very high melting point Used for drill bits because very hard substance

Regular structure of positive ions Held in place by sea of delocalised electrons Can conduct heat & electricity due to free electrons Layers can slide over each other, so can be bent & shaped. Metallic Bonding:

Polymers: Thermosetting: Cross-links between polymer chains Do not melt when heated. Thermosoftening: Intermolecular forces holding polymer chains Low melting point.

Nanoscience: SMALLER MOLECULES LARGER SA / CAN GET TO PLACES THAT OTHERS CAN’T

Chromatography: Line drawn in pencil so hasn’t run Measure known substances against unknown – will reach the same height on the piece of paper because particles travel at the same speed

Calculating masses: To calculate Mr: To calculate Moles: Add up all Ar (big number on periodic table) n = m/Mr

% Yield: Experimental yield/theoretical yield x 100 % yield because... Some is lost as gas The reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible Some of the reactants may react differently to how expected

Rates of reaction: 4 things speed up rate: Phrase to use: Increased temperature Increased pressure / concentration Increased surface area Using a catalyst More collisions with more energy Therefore more successful collisions Therefore higher rate of reaction

Exothermic & Endothermic: Examples: Combustion of fuels Hand warmers Self-heating cans Sports injury packs

Naming Salts: H 2 SO 4 HCl HNO 3 Sulfuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid Nitric Acid Sulfate Salts Chloride Salts Nitrate Salts

Making Soluble Salts:

Making insoluble Salts:

Electrolysis: Ionic compounds must be... At cathode: Positive ions attracted Gain electrons Become atoms At anode: Negative ions attracted Lose electrons Become atoms

Electrolysis to manufacture Al: Molten mixture of aluminium oxide & cryolite O2 forms at +ve electrode – reacts with C to form... Al forms at negative electrode & is drained off Cryolite used as it lowers the temperature that the Al melts at.

Electrolysis to manufacture NaOH: