The Vietnam War

Origins of the Vietnam War 1. Fighting the Japanese Pre-1945 Vietnam (called Indo-China) ruled by French Conquered in WWII by Japanese: treated Vietnamese harshly; much resentment - Caused rise of Viet Minh (anti-Japanese Vietnamese resistance movement) - Led by Ho Chi Minh - Founder of Vietnamese Communist Party End of WWII, Viet Minh declared Vietnam independent (Remember: Japan had lost WWII)

2. Fighting the French French returned 1945 to retake Vietnam Led to 9 year war between Viet Minh (controlled north) and French (controlled South) Communists supported by China post-49 USA concerned BUT unlike Korea = did not send troops Sent $500 billion in military aid to help French French defeated – left Vietnam in ‘54 Geneva Accords Vietnam divided along 17 th parallel (until elections to be held)

Why did US involvement escalate? Ceasefire agreement: democratic elections to be held within 2 years to reunite country US prevented elections: feared communist victory AGAIN: DOMINO THEORY Financially supported Ngo Dien Diem (leader of South Vietnam) - Fiercely anti-communist BUT Diem was unpopular with Vietnamese  Belonged to landlord class: treated peasants extremely badly  Christian: oppressed Buddhists (main religion in Vietnam)  Very corrupt; refused to hold elections NOTE: US PREPARED TO SUPPORT AN ANTI-DEMOCRATIC LEADER IN ORDER TO PREVENT SPREAD OF COMMUNISM

FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR DIEM’S REGIME  1955 US supported Ngo Dinh Diem to set up Republic of Korea  Regime was very unpopular with South Vietnamese peasants - Belonged to a landlord class; treated peasants very badly - Christian: oppressed the Buddhist religion of most Vietnamese peasants - Regime was very corrupt: appointed family members or other supports to high positions of power - Refused to allow elections  Americans were frustrated with his rule BUT they had no other alternative  Supported regime with $1.6 billion in 1950s  Army overthrew Dinh Diem in 1963

Actions of oppressive regime = more Vietnamese people supported the communists (Viet Cong) led by Ho Chi Minh Mainly from the north but also had support in South Vietnam as well Peasants who did not support Viet Cong were often faced with violence Viet Cong started a guerrilla war - Used Ho Chi Minh trail to transport supplies, military weapons throughout Vietnam (from north to south) - Attacked South Vietnamese officials, buildings, government ministers - Attacked US air force bases

 Response: South Vietnamese govt launched “strategic hamlet” programme  Moved peasants living in Viet Cong areas to areas controlled by South Vietnam - US aid = building materials, money, food and equipment to improve farms and houses - Resented by peasants; corruption = local officials kept money meant for the villagers

FROM ADVISORS TO COMBAT TROOPS  1962: Kennedy was sending military advisors to South Vietnam to aid the fight against the Viet Cong  Did not intend to send troops/repeat Korean War  BUT Kennedy assassinated in 1963: replaced by Lyndon Johnson - More prepared to initiate full-scale conflict  Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964 = perfect opportunity - North Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on US ships - Congress passed Tonkin Gulf resolution - Meant Johnson could initiate full-blown war  1965: Operation Rolling Thunder: bombing campaign vs North Vietnamese industrial centres, army bases, Ho Chi Minh trail  1965: 3,500 marines and combat troops arrived in Vietnam

WHY DID THE US SEND TROOPS TO VIETNAM?  US explained it = domino theory  Controversial counter-argument: powerful groups within US wanted a war - ‘military-industrial complex’: govt gave a lot of money to military commanders - Budget spent on development of weapons - Armed forces and big business gained financially from the conflict

TACTICS AND TECHNOLOGY IN VIETNAM WAR 1. Viet Cong a. Guerilla warfare - Ho Chi Minh inspired by the success of Mao’s tactics in ensuring the communist revolution in China in Basic ides: retreat when enemy attacks; raid when the enemy camps; attack when the enemy tires; pursue when enemy retreats - These tactics used successfully in defeat of the French in Guerilla tactics = very difficult for the USA - Viet Cong wore civilian clothing: hard to identify - No base camp or headquarters - Worked in small groups with limited weapons - Attacked then disappeared into jungles, villages, tunnels

- Guerrilla tactics bad for the morale of US soldiers - Lived in constant fear of ambushes, booby traps (eg pits covered with leaves hiding sharpened bamboo sticks) - Greatest fear = having to go ‘on point’: leading the patrol check for booby traps (11% of soldiers killed by booby traps; 51% by hand-to hand combat and ambushes) - Viet Cong preferred close combat: knew the Americans feared hitting their own troops

2. Civilians - Ho Chi Minh knew importance of keeping the Vietnamese on his side - VC fighters expected to respect the Vietnamese people - Helped them in farms, built hospitals etc - BUT those who were anti-communist/anti-VC were treated ruthlessly - Campaign of terror vs South Vietnamese government officials (tax collectors, teachers, police etc) : VC killed 27,000 civilians 3. Supplies - VC depended on supplies from North Vietnam: sent on Ho Chi Minh trail - Repeatedly bombed by US and South Vietnamese planes BUT 40, 000 Vietnamese worked to keep it open

4. Commitment - Total North Vietnamese dead in war = approx. 1 million (much more than US) - BUT Ho Chi Minh was prepared to pay this cost in order to fight his cause - Always replacement troops available

US TACTICS 1. Bombing - Main tactic - ‘65-’72: bombed military and industrial targets in North Vietnam; bombed towns and cities in South Vietnam; bombed Ho Chi Minh trail; bombed neighbouring countries Laos and Cambodia 2. Search and destroy - Set up army bases - Helicopters used to search and destroy any Viet Cong found there BUT a. Raids often based on inadequate info b. Inexperienced soldiers walked into traps c. Made US and South Vietnamese very unpopular amongst peasants= supported Viet Cong d. Many innocent villages were destroyed; high number of civilian casualties

3. Chemical Weapons - Agent Orange = toxic weedkiller: destroyed jungle where the VC lived (had severe long-term effects on agriculture in Vietnam) - Napalm = destroyed jungles, burnt through skin to the bone - Many civilians and soldiers also killed/badly wounded by these chemical weapons

US TROOPS  Initially soldiers were professionals: high morale, performed well  As war intensified = need for more soldiers  Introduced conscription from Many soldiers were completely inexperienced and very young (average age was 19) 2. Majority were from poor and immigrant backgrounds 3. Knew very little about Vietnam; didn’t particularly care about communism or capitalism (whereas the Viet Cong were fighting for their country and their cause) 4. Low morale, many drug issues etc (LSD)

THE TET OFFENSIVE 1968  Official US view between was that the war was going well (also reported in press) - Vast numbers of Viet Cong were being killed by the South Vietnamese and US troops - Although they struggled vs guerrilla tactics, they were convinced that they were wearing the enemy down  Confidence shattered = 1968 Tet Offensive  Surprise attack by Viet Cong soldiers on national holiday: attacked number of SV cities, siege of Saigon – US embassy  Failure for the communists: 1. Lost 10, 000 experienced troops 2. Expect the people of SV to rise up and support them – didn’t happen

 Major turning point in war – raised questions in USA 1. US was spending $20 bil annually; almost 500, 000 troops in Vietnam: how could the VC forces have launched a major attack and caught the Americans by surprise? 2. US and SV troops used enormous amount of artillery and air power - Many civilians killed, ancient city of Hue destroyed - Immoral?

THE MEDIA  Had been positive until Tet Offensive  After the offensive most US citizens and leaders realised that the Vietnam would require greater effort : was it worth it?

PEACE MOVEMENT USA

 Govt needed American people’s support: anti-war movement was becoming increasingly popular post-Tet Offensive  War was draining money that could be used for better purposes at home  Despite all the spending, US didn’t seem closer to winning the war  Conscription exposed racial inequality in US: 30% African Americans were drafted; 19% White Americans; 22% of US casualties were African American - “why should we fight a war for a country which discriminates against us?”  Increasing number of Americans felt uncomfortable about what was happening in Vietnam (immoral?)

 Vietnam war = media war: photographs in newspapers and video footage would be shown daily on American TVs - Americans could see children being burnt by napalm, prisoners being executed, poor families watching their homes being burnt down  Vietnam was not a “crusade against communism” symbol - Rather is was a symbol of defeat, confusion and corruption  Anti-war protests = height between ; led b y civil rights campaigners and students - Often burning of US flag: criminal offence, strong symbol of people’s rejection of American values  700,000 anti-war protestors demonstrated in Washington in 1969 LARGEST PROTEST IN US HISTORY

My Lai Massacre

 1968 US soldiers (‘Charlie Company’) conducted a search and destroy mission in village of My Lai: had been told that there was a Viet Cong headquarters with 200 Viet Cong guerrillas  Ordered to destroy all houses, huts and livestock  Under impression that they had been ordered to kill everyone in the village  Between 300 & 400 civilians (mainly women, old men & children) killed – some while working on the land  Mowed down with machine guns as they were herded in irrigation ditch  NO VIET CONG WERE FOUND WARNING: THE NEXT SLIDE MAY BE DISTURBING TO SOME OF YOU. PLEASE DO NOT FEEL FORCED TO LOOK AT IT.

 Initially treated as US success  Officers & soldiers praised – official report = only 20 civilians killed; rest were Viet Cong = government cover-up  BUT one year later, truth was exposed & Congress launched an investigation  Commanding officer, Lieutenant William Calley (along with ten other members of Charlie Company and officers), charged with mass murder in 1969  MY LAI = TURNING POINT IN VIETNAM WAR

 My Lai shocked American public  Army placed all blame on William Calley – emphasised that he was not acting under orders  Calley found guilty of murder of 22 civilians - Sentenced to 20 years’ hard labour in 1971 (released in 1974)

END OF VIETNAM WAR

 After Tet Offensive, Johnson realised that war could not be won militarily  Reduced Operation Rolling Thunder bombing campaign  Started to move towards peace negotiations with North Vietnam  Did not seek re-election: admission of failure  Presidential race NOT based on winning war – rather focused on how the US could pull out of Vietnam looking like it had been defeated?

 1968 Nixon elected – vowed to get US out of Vietnam  BUT still needed to show success of containment = did not want to be seen as ‘handing over’ Vietnam to communists  Used four main strategies: 1. Improved relations with USSR & China 2. Vietnamisation 3. Increasing bombing 4. Peace negotiations with North Vietnam

 Improved relations with USSR & China 1969 USSR & China’s friendly relations deteriorated: possibility of war bet two communist powers Result = both sought better relations with US  Increased bombing Nixon increased bombing at same time = show that he was not weak US & South Vietnamese troops invaded Viet Cong bases in Cambodia = outraged US public & world  Vietnamisation Process of handing over responsibility of fighting war to South Vietnamese forces Helped train the forces Began withdrawing US troops Bet almost 400,000 left Vietnam  Peace negotiations Early 1969 peace negotiations between US National Security advisor (Kissinger) began talks with Le Duc Tho (Vietnamese peace negotiator)

EXERCISE IN CLASS (INDIVIDUAL) Why did US policy fail in Vietnam? [6] You have 15 minutes to answer the question. In your answer, make reference to and explain the following: US military tactics Unpopularity of South Vietnamese regime The experience of the Viet Cong and the inexperience of American soldiers Opposition in the USA Other countries’ support for Viet Cong NB: YOU ARE MAKING AN ARGUMENT. MAKE SURE YOU ANSWER THE QUESTION – USE EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT YOUR ANSWER.

COST OF VIETNAM WAR  US soldiers died  injured  severely disabled  Vietnam veterans (US soldiers who fought in the war) suffered from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder  Over Vietnam veterans have committed suicide since the end of the war  Approx 2.1 million Vietnamese civilians were killed in war  US spent $140 billion (equivalent to $950 billion in 2011)  Dramatic rise in resistance to US foreign policy within USA

HOW DID THE VIETNAM WAR AFFECT THE POLICY OF CONTAINMENT?  Military failure for USA Showed that US vast military strength was unable to contain spread of communism  Strategic failure for USA Failed to stop South Vietnam from falling to Communism Heavy bombing of Laos & Cambodia = more support for Communist forces in these countries By 1975 both Laos & Cambodia had Communist governments US policies sped up domino effect in the region

 Propaganda failure US could no longer portray campaign vs. Communism as a ‘moral crusade’ Atrocities committed by soldiers (eg My Lai massacre) and use of chemical weapons damaged US reputation US seen as supporting a corrupt regime which did not have the support of its people

CONSEQUENCES  Changed US policy towards Communist states: second détente Another period of peaceful co-existence US tried to improve relations with China: Nixon visited China for the first time (‘ping pong diplomacy’ Allowed China to join UN Improved relations with USSR USSR & China had better relations with the USA than they did with each other  US wary to send troops into any conflict that they could not win

POSITIVENEGATIVE A cease-fire agreement was signed in 1973 enabling US troops to withdraw. Encouraged a period of detente. Improved American relations with the USSR and China. Arms control negotations: SALT 1 Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles: 1972 Improved trade relations between the superpowers. South Vietnam lost the war. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became communist. 55,000 American soldiers died. Billions of dollars spent. Americans lost their confidence as the leading nation. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE VIETNAM WAR

How did the Vietnam War affect the American policy of containment? [6] YOU HAVE 15 MINUTES TO ANSWER THIS QUESTION EXERCISE IN CLASS (INDIVIDUAL)

EXERCISE IN CLASS (CLASS DISCUSSION) How successful was the USA’s policy of containment in Vietnam?  How far did the policy of containment succeed?  What were the main reasons for its success or failure? Answer the ten mark question in writing: time yourself (15 – 20 minutes) MAKE SURE THAT ALL YOUR NOTES ARE UP TO DATE STUDY FOR TEST