Poultry Chapter 18 W. Stephen Damron Introduction to Animal Science: Global, Biological, Social, and Industry Perspectives

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: –e xplain the place of poultry in U.S. agriculture. –describe the purpose and the value of the different poultry industry segments. –give a brief history of the poultry industry in the United States. –describe the poultry industry segments and structure. –give an accurate accounting of where the poultry industry is located in the United States. –quantify the role of genetics in the poultry industry. –explain the role of breeds in the U.S. poultry industry.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: –describe the major breeding programs for poultry. –give a basic outline for managing poultry to produce fertile eggs. –describe the feeding practices for different classes of poultry. –explain the concept of flock health management and give specifics regarding some common poultry diseases. –explain the nutritional benefits of various poultry products for humans. –discuss trends in the poultry industry including factors that will influence the industry in the future.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Scientific Classification of Poultry Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Aves Order: Galliformes Suborder: Galli Family: Phasinanidae (chicken); Meleagrididae (turkey) Genus: Gallus (chicken); Meleagris (turkey) Species: domestica (chicken); galiopavo (turkey)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture Poultry is a term that includes a wide variety of domestic birds of several species, and it refers to them whether they are alive or dressed. However, the important commercial species are chickens and turkeys and, to a much lesser degree, ducks and geese.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture The poultry industry is large, with a combined gross annual income of almost $30 billion. The poultry industry is responsible for over 11.6% of all U.S. farm cash receipts. Poultry accounts for over 23% of animal agriculture’s share of all U.S. farm cash receipts. The poultry industry is the second-largest sector of animal agriculture.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture Figure 18–2 Poultry and eggs farm cash receipts as a percentage of total U.S. farm cash receipts, 2000–2009. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011a.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture The poultry industry has three major segments: –Broilers –Eggs –Turkeys Figure 18–1 Relative contribution of poultry segments to total poultry industry value, 2000–2009. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011a

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture Figure 18–4 Broiler chickens such as these account for the largest share of the poultry industry. Broiler production has steadily increased in the United States since (Courtesy of USDA.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture The United States: –produces 9% of the world’s chicken eggs and 22% of the chicken meat, –is the largest poultry meat-producing country in the world, –is second to China in chicken egg production, – produces 50% of the world’s turkey meat, –and is the largest producer of turkeys in the world.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture The broiler industry especially has seized innovation as a way to generate a lower-cost product than the other meat-producing industries can produce. The egg industry is a major contributor to the nation’s food supply, providing more than 90 billion eggs annually. –68% are consumed as fresh-shell eggs, –and the remaining 32% is used in the manufacturing of products (i.e. cakes, pies, pasta).

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved The Place of Poultry in U.S. Agriculture The duck segment of the poultry industry is the largest of the remaining segments; ducks are raised primarily for meat. Geese are raised throughout the U.S. in hobbyist or farm flocks. Game birds and other exotic fowl are usually kept either for exhibition or ornamental reasons or for meat production.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Purpose of the Poultry Industry in the U.S. The primary purpose of the poultry industry in the United States is to produce inexpensive sources of protein for human consumption. The industry takes grain and by-products and produces meat and eggs very efficiently. Poultry are monogastric and very efficient converters of grain to meat.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Purpose of the Poultry Industry in the U.S. Figure 18–7 Product protein output as a percentage of feed protein. (Source: Compiled from several sources from the Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on Animal Production, Seoul, Korea, 1998.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Purpose of the Poultry Industry in the U.S. Because of high fixed cost for feed, economical production depends on reducing labor and time to market for more efficient production. –This is done with expensive confinement facilities and full feeding of high-energy rations. Combined poultry-meat production equals over 32% of the world’s total meat production. –If egg production is added to this, then poultry accounts for nearly 1.5 times as much product as pork and nearly 2.5 times as much as beef.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Purpose of the Poultry Industry in the U.S. Although not large in terms of economic value, poultry hobbyists comprise a large and dedicated group of individuals who deserve acknowledgment. In addition, several industrial uses of poultry give a somewhat different dimension to the purpose of the poultry industry and are worth mentioning, such as: –pharmaceuticals production, –vaccine production, –and research.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Domestication –Domestic chickens were known in India over 3,400 years ago, and they were present in Egypt and China by 1400 B.C. –DNA testing asserts that modern chickens descended from the Red Jungle fowl Gallus gallus, which is native to Thailand and still found in the wild today. –Gaming has been proposed and generally accepted as the primary motivation for the first domestication of the chicken.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Early Use in the United States o 1493—Columbus bring chickens to this hemisphere o 1607—chicken arrive in North America at Jamestown Colony o 1840—first census of poultry taken o 1844—incubator was patented o 1892—first long-distance shipment of baby chicks o 1918—U.S. Post Office allowed chicks to be mailed o 1923—electric incubator invented

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Eggs o 1872—commodity exchange of eggs chartered o 1874—chicken wire invented o 1878—first commercial egg-drying established o 1889—artificial light used to stimulate eggs in winter o 1909—electric candler developed o 1923—USDA classes, standards, and grades o 1929—layers first kept in individual cages o 1932—forced molting started o 1934—first legal standards for marketing eggs

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Genetics o 1828—first Single Comb White Leghorn imported o 1830—red chicken breeding programs began o 1840—birds imported from China o 1869—first trapnest patent o 1870—toe punch & numbering system developed o 1873—American Standard of Perfection issued o 1928—first sex-linked crosses were advertised o 1935—artificial insemination in chickens o 1935—first incrossbred-hybrid chickens produced o 1940—Hy-Line layers first marketed

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Chicks o 1903—Cornell gasoline brooder developed Integration o 1895—commercial feed industry began in Chicago o 1918—federal regulations for grading live poultry o 1920s—poultry production on industrial scale o 1926—USDA Poultry Inspection Service o 1928—inspection expands to dressed poultry o 1934—USDA recognizes commercial broiler operations

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Historical Perspective Integration o 1940—mechanical poultry initiated o —cost of production cut in half; industry spread across Midwest o chicken prices declined o producers began to rely on feed company as source of credit o feed dealers began to depend on feed manufacturers as source of credit o feed suppliers and manufacturers began to acquire hatcheries and processors o thus vertical integration occurred.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Broiler Industry –Meat chickens are marketed primarily as broilers, roasters, or game hens. –Modern broiler production is concentrated in a relatively few large farms with large investments in facilities. –Before 1940, the broiler chicken was marketed at 16 weeks of age. Today, the broiler chicken is being and marketed at less than half that age.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Broiler Industry –The broiler industry is a highly integrated corporate industry rather than an industry of independent producers. –All segments are either owned or controlled by the parent company. –Well over 90% of the commercial broilers in the United States are grown under contract to an integrated broiler firm.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–11 Structure of a typical integrated broiler company. Source: Adapted from Taylor and Field, 1998.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Broiler Industry –The broiler industry is centered in the southern and southeastern states. –The industry located and developed in these areas initially for three reasons: Favorable climate that reduced housing costs Low-cost labor, which was often the small farmer who worked off the farm as well as on the farm Nearby population centers that provided a demand for the product.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–12 The production of broilers by state, number raised (× 1,000), Circled numbers indicate the ranking for the top-10 production states. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011c.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Egg Industry –Egg production is also accomplished in large units that require large capital investments. –Environmentally controlled housing and computer technology are common. Most eggs are never touched by human hands until they are taken from their container to be used. –Most production is integrated from hatchery to marketing of the eggs.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–13 The integrated egg- producing operation. (Source: Schrader et al., 1978.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Egg Industry –The poultry egg industry is distributed in a pattern much like that of the human population. –There are several reasons for this, with these two being very important: Eggs require less processing than broilers, which allows more flexibility in moving and marketing the product; and locally produced fresh eggs can be promoted and sold at a premium.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–14 Egg production by state, in millions, in Circled numbers indicate ranking for the top-10 production states. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011c.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Egg Industry –The average number of laying hens and pullets in the United States is about 340 million birds. –Total U.S. egg production is about 92 billion eggs. –The number of eggs per layer has increased from 227 per hen in 1973 to 269 per hen in That’s an approximate increase of one egg per hen per year.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–15 Egg production in the United States, 1961–2008. Source: FAOSTAT, Since the late 1980s, egg production in the United States has generally increased.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Turkey Industry –Most turkey production units grow from 50,000 to 75,000 birds and have approximately three and a half grow-out cycles per year. –Large facilities often have a single brooding complex that serves multiple grow-out facilities. –Virtually all turkeys are produced on contract to an integrator.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–16 Turkeys in a 10,000-bird building in Benton, Arkansas. ( Photo by Jeff Vaughn courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Turkey Industry –Turkey hens are marketed between 14 and 16 weeks of age and from 14–18 lbs. –Toms are marketed between 17 and 20 weeks of age and from 26–32 lbs. –Some variation exists based on whether the birds will be processed or sold whole and ready to cook. About 70% is further processed.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry The U.S. Turkey Industry –It is hard to see the same geographic patterns in the turkey-producing industry as can be seen in the broiler industry. –The reasons why particular states produce substantial amounts of turkey are varied. –Nearly 8 billion pounds of turkey meat are produced in the U.S. each year on a live-weight basis; this requires approximately 270 million birds.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–17 Turkey-producing states, in thousands, in Source: USDA-NASS, 2011c.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of the Poultry Industry Figure 18–18 U.S. turkey meat production 1980–2010. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011b.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Structure and Geographic Location of The U.S. Duck, Goose, and Other Poultry Industries

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Genetics and Breeding Program Breeding and selection of poultry differs from breeding of the larger animals in three major ways: –it is more flexible because of short generation intervals and large numbers of offspring; –it has been the industry most subjected to modern animal breeding and selection techniques and has made the most progress; –and fewer people make all the decisions.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Genetics and Breeding Program Most of the traits of interest in poultry genetics are quantitative traits such as: –egg production potential, –egg size, –growth rate, –and conformation. Traits showing favorable heterosis include egg production, egg weight, body weight, and age at reproductive maturity (days to first egg).

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Genetics and Breeding Program Inbreeding is frequently used to produce strains of birds to use later by being crossed with a different inbred line for some specific purpose. Outcrossing is the term used in poultry for crossbreeding. –Outcrossing is also practiced through a variation called strain crossing, a process in which the inbred lines within the same breed might be used.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Genetics and Breeding Program Poultry breeding is handled in an extremely controlled manner. The actual number of individuals who direct breeding programs is considerably fewer than 100. This helps produce uniformity in the product.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Generally speaking, chickens are one of two types: meat type or egg type. Chickens exist in many colors, sizes, and shapes and in more than 350 combinations of these traits. To identify and classify the species, they are designated by class, breed, variety, and strain.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains A class is a group of breeds originating in the same geographic area. A breed possesses a specific set of physical features (e.g. body shape and skin color). Varieties are subdivisions of breeds and are based on such characteristics as feather color, comb type, and presence of a beard and muffs.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Strains are families or breeding populations that are more nearly alike than the breed or variety they are a subdivision of. Today, the commercial poultry industry is based primarily on strains and strain crosses. The American Standard of Perfection is a compilation of the breed standards.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Chicken Breeds in Modern Production –The Single Comb White Leghorn is the most numerous breed in the United States today. Virtually all commercial white egg-producing flocks are strains of Leghorns. –The Single Comb Rhode Island Red and Barred Plymouth Rock are used most often to produce sex-linked color differences in day-old chicks. The cross of these two varieties is a good producer of large brown eggs.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Figure 18–19 Strains and strain crosses of the Single Comb White Leghorn are the most popular laying hen in the United States. (Photo by Stephen Ausmus courtesy USDA- Agricultural Research Service.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Chicken Breeds in Modern Production –The New Hampshire and White Plymouth Rock were, and still are, used to develop many of the synthetic lines of meat-type chickens. Most commercial meat-producing crosses have one or the other of both of these breeds somewhere on the female side. –The Cornish is an excellent meat-producing chicken with good growth and carcass characteristics. It is safe to say that virtually all the commercial broilers in the U.S. contain some Cornish blood.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Figure 18–20 Cornish (pictured) males are crossed with females that are crosses of Barred Plymouth Rock, White Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, or synthetic lines to produce meat birds. (Courtesy of Watt Publishing Company.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Turkey Breeds –The modern turkey is a descendant of the wild turkeys native to North and Central. –The American Standard of Perfection lists eight varieties of turkeys; seven of these were developed in the U.S. –Large White, Medium White, Small White, and Bronze varieties are generally offered; the Large Whites have come to dominate the industry.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Duck and Goose Breeds –The Mallard is the most popular duck in the United States. –The White Pekin duck is the major duck of commercial importance in the United States. –Meat production is generally the primary criterion in breed selection of ducks. Egg production, brooding tendency, and the white plumage that produces an attractive dressed carcass, are other characteristics that should be considered.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Breeds, Varieties, and Strains Duck and Goose Breeds –The domestic goose, which was bred in ancient Egypt, China, and India, is said to have been in the United States since early colonial days. –The White Emden and Toulouse are the two most popular goose breeds. –The African, Pilgrim, and White Chinese are also raised in significant numbers.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Breeder Flock Management –The breeder flock should be reared using proper management practices, and then selected to be healthy and free of defects that can interfere with proper mating and egg production. –Males should be aggressive and willing to breed. –Females should be selected for good egg-laying traits.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Mating Systems –To produce hatching eggs, poultry can be mated by using one of the following mating systems: Mass mating—several males are allowed to run with a flock of females. Pen mating—one male is mated with a small flock of females. Stud mating—one female is mated with one male. Artificial insemination—commonly used in turkey production.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Selection and Care of Eggs –Frequent collection of eggs is important. –Eggs laid on the floor or that are dirty should not be used because they spread disease. –Hatching eggs cannot be washed because it removes the protective sealing substance from the shell, allowing bacteria to enter the egg. –Commercial operations fumigate eggs prior to setting to reduce the bacteria on the shells and increase hatchability.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Egg Storage –Eggs held before incubation should be stored near 60°F and 75% humidity to prevent delayed embryo growth and prevent moisture loss. Incubators –Proper care must be given to relative humidity, temperature fluctuations, ventilation, and other factors to ensure a good hatch. –Eggs must be regularly turned to prevent the embryos from sticking to the sides of the shells.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Incubators

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Reproductive Management in Poultry Testing for Fertility –Eggs in incubators can be tested for fertility by candling them at 4–7 days of incubation. –Infertile refers to an unfertilized egg or an egg that started developing but died before growth could be detected. –Dead germs are embryos that died after growing large enough to be seen when candled.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutrition in Poultry Poultry feeding has changed more than the feeding of any other species with the advent of modern production systems. Poultry nutrition is also more critical, complicated, and thus a greater challenge to the producer because poultry have: –more rapid digestion, –higher metabolic rates, –faster respiration and circulation, –and higher body temperature (107°F).

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutrition in Poultry Poultry species are monogastric omnivores and have a specialized avian tract. They have paired ceca, which will develop and digest some fiber if they are fed forages. Poultry and swine generally compete for the same feedstuffs: concentrated feeds such as grains, soybean meal, and by-product feeds.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutrition in Poultry Feed is the largest cost in production of the poultry species. The best feeding strategy is to optimize growth of meat-producing animals to get birds to market faster. –This decreases the percentage of lifetime feed used for body maintenance. –It also decreases other fixed costs such as housing and labor.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutrition in Poultry Feeding practices in poultry operations across the country tend to be fairly uniform because the industry is so integrated. Commercial poultry rations are formulated with the use of least-cost ration formulation programs. Poultry species are fed almost exclusively on complete mixed diets that are offered in mash or pelleted form. –A high percentage is pelleted because of less waste.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutrition in Poultry

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Flock Health Management Because of the concentrated nature of poultry production, a single virulent disease can cause millions of dead animals and millions in economic losses. Biosecurity measures are routinely practiced to minimize the risk of disease transmission from sources outside the production unit and reduce the transmission of diseases between groups of birds on the same farm.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Flock Health Management Figure 18–22 Technicians vaccinate chicks subcutaneously. Vaccination is an important part of flock health management. (Photo courtesy USDA.)

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Challenges to Poultry Health Rickets –Abnormal bone development, referred to as rickets, may be seen in young growing birds as a result of dietary calcium or phosphorus deficiency or as a result of inadequate vitamin D intake. –When young birds are affected, they will have stiff gaits, enlarged joints, and stunted growth. –Laying hens with calcium deficiency will produce thin-shelled eggs with low hatchability, followed by decreased egg production.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Challenges to Poultry Health Fowl Cholera –Fowl cholera is a bacterial infection caused by Pasteurella multocida that may cause disease in both chickens and turkeys. –Signs of sickness in birds include: decreased appetite and weight loss, swollen joints and lameness, depression, mucoid discharge and difficulty breathing, diarrhea, and darkened wattle.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Challenges to Poultry Health Mycoplasmosis –Several species of Mycoplasma bacterial organisms may cause infections in poultry that result in various types of disease. –Mycoplasma gallisepticum causes chronic respiratory disease in chickens and infectious sinusitis in turkeys. –Prevention of infection, as well as eradication of the infection from breeding stock are the most effective means of controlling this disease.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutritional Benefits of Poultry to Humans Eggs have a very high nutrient density, which simply means that we get a large amount of essential nutrients in relation to the calories consumed. Eggs contain all essential amino acids needed by humans, many needed minerals, and all required vitamins except vitamin C. The protein in poultry meat is also of high quality, contains all of the essential amino acids, and is easily digested.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Nutritional Benefits of Poultry to Humans

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Turkey Consumption and Production –Per capita consumption appears to be stable at approximately 17 lbs (carcass weight equivalent), where it has been since Figure 18–18 U.S. turkey meat production 1980–2010. Source: USDA-NASS, 2011b.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Broiler Consumption and Production –Broiler meat production continues to expand, although the rapid increases stalled in the mid 2000s. –Per capita consumption of broiler meat steadily increased until 2006, when it stalled for the first time since 1975 and subsequently experienced further declines. –It is expected to recover and continue to increase.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Figure 18–23 Per capita meat consumption, 1975–2011. Source: Based on USDA-ERS, 2011b.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Broiler Consumption and Production –Cost Advantages The industry has produced increased amounts of chicken and, at the same time, lowered the price to consumers. –Convenient/Value-Added Products The poultry industry has outdone the beef and pork industries in developing value-added products and has maintained an aggressive posture in this regard

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Broiler Consumption and Production –Fast Food Fast-food chicken is available in virtually every fast- food restaurant and even in gas stations. –Nutrition and Health Consciousness Poultry products are nutritious, are often leaner than alternative meats, and have gained the status of a health-conscious food.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Egg Consumption –The peak per capita egg consumption in the U.S. was in 1945 at 405 eggs per capita but began declining. –The low mark in consumption was in 1991 with 233 eggs. –The combined use of eggs in processed foods and a changing of attitudes about the nutritional value of the egg in the diet seem to be driving a consumption comeback for the egg.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Figure 18–24 Per capita egg consumption in the United States. Source: USDA-ERS, 2011b.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Egg Consumption –Cholesterol Eggs gained the status of a problem food because of their cholesterol content. A growing body of evidence has accumulated showing that dietary levels of cholesterol have very little to do with the plasma levels of cholesterol. New studies have shown that egg eating has no effect on the small dense LDL-3 through LDL-7 particles that cause the greatest threat for cardiovascular disease.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Natural and Organic Production –The increasing interest by consumers in natural products has prompted companies to begin producing and marketing poultry products to meet the demand. A central issue is the exact definition of what natural means on a food label. –Organic products are no longer simply a lifestyle choice for a small share of consumers. Organic poultry and egg markets in the United States are expanding rapidly.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Natural and Organic Production –Other interesting trends in egg production are developing in an effort to meet consumer demand such as: vegetarian, cage-free, free-range, fertile, in-shell pasteurized, and nutrient-enhanced specialty eggs.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Food Safety Concerns –Eggs Eggs are washed and graded for consumer quality and protection. Eggs are refrigerated on the farm and in transport vehicles. Most eggs are in the market within 1 to 7 days from the time of production; this speed helps provide a fresh, safe food product.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Food Safety Concerns –Eggs and Salmonella The inside of an egg was considered almost sterile until eggs contaminated with Salmonella enteritidis were found. The likelihood of finding an infected egg is about 0.005%. However, when eggs are not kept properly refrigerated or cooked properly or perhaps eaten raw, problems can easily occur.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Food Safety Concerns –Poultry Meat Poultry meat has not been unduly tainted by the food borne illness scares associated with ground beef. Much of this has to do with the fact that poultry meat is rarely sold as a ground product. Also, much of it is further processed and subject to strict quality control. The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system helps all meat industries provide safer products.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Integration and Consolidation –All phases of poultry production are and will continue to become more specialized, larger, concentrated on fewer farms, and more vertically integrated. Technological Innovation and Standardization –The poultry industry has made the most dramatic advancements in both biology and technical aspects of any of the livestock industries.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Waste Disposal –Poultry farms will face tougher and tougher laws regarding litter and dead bird disposal. Biotechnology –The products of biotechnology that will most help poultry producers are in the areas of disease prevention and treatment. –In addition, such tools as marker-assisted selection will help further the genetic progress. –Transgenic strains of poultry species to produce specific substances in the egg will be developed.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Animal Welfare –The layer industry has long been under attack from animal rights proponents who object to the practice of caging layer hens rather than allowing them to range freely. –Animal rights groups have mounted a series of campaigns against caged layer production. –Major restaurant chains, food retailers, and food processors have announced policies on purchasing eggs from cage-free suppliers.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Trends and Factors Influencing the Poultry Industry Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) –Avian influenza H5N1 has been causing a great deal of concern in the United States and around the world. –Millions of birds have died, and so have well over 300 people in 2004–2006. –Trade disruptions cost countries billions of dollars.

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Summary and Conclusion

Introduction to Animal Science, 5e W. Stephen Damron © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All Rights Reserved Summary and Conclusion The poultry industry is a large and thriving business based on meat- and egg-producing chickens and turkeys for meat production. Generally speaking, chickens are one of two types: meat type or egg type. Consumption of most poultry products are stable or increasing.