0. Alan Evans • Kendall Martin
Technology in Action
Alan Evans • Kendall Martin
Mary Anne Poatsy
Ninth Edition
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

1. Chapter 10 Behind the Scenes: Software Programming
Technology in Action
Chapter 10
Behind the Scenes: Software Programming
In this behind-the-scenes chapter, we explore the stages of program development and survey the most popular programming languages.
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2. Chapter Topics Understanding software programming
Life cycle of an information system
Life cycle of a program
Programming languages
Chapter topics include:
Understanding software programming
Life cycle of an information system
Life cycle of a program
Programming languages
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3. Understanding Software Programming
Types of tasks that are candidates for automation:
Routine
Repetitive
Work with electronic data
Follow a series of clear steps
When existing software cannot be found, programming is mandatory
Every day we face a wide array of tasks. Some tasks are complex and need a human touch; others require creative thought and higher-level organization.
Tasks that are repetitive, work with electronic information, and follow a series of clear steps are candidates for automation with computers.
For users who cannot find an existing software product to accomplish a task, programming is mandatory.
Even if you are not going to be a programmer, you need to know some programming. Many existing applications allow you to customize and automate various features using miniprograms called macros. By creating macros, you can ask the computer to execute a complicated sequence of steps with a single command.
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4. Life Cycle of an Information System
A collection of pieces working together to achieve a common goal
An information system includes:
Data
People
Procedures
Hardware
Software
Generally speaking, a system is a collection of pieces working together to achieve a common goal.
An information system includes data, people, procedures, hardware, and software.
You interact with information systems all the time, whether you are at a grocery store, bank, or restaurant. In any of these instances, the parts of the system work together toward a similar goal.
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5. System Development Life Cycle
To create modern software, an entire team is needed
Programs require many phases to complete
Must be available for multiple operating systems and work over networks
Must be free of errors and well supported
To create a modern software package, an entire team of people is needed, and a systematic approach is necessary. Those programs are generally far more complex than the ones you would write yourself, and they require many phases to make the product complete and marketable. They need to be available for multiple operating systems, work over networked environments, and be free of errors and well supported. Therefore, a process often referred to as the system development life cycle (SDLC) is used.
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6. Six Steps in the SDLC
Because teams of individuals are required to develop systems, an organized process (or set of steps) needs to be followed to ensure that development proceeds in an orderly fashion.
This set of steps is usually referred to as the system development life cycle (SDLC).
There are six steps in the SDLC. This system is sometimes referred to as a “waterfall” system because each step is dependent on the previous step being completed first.
Each step must be completed before you can progress to the next step.
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7. Problem & Opportunity Identification
Development steering committee formed to evaluate systems development proposals
Reviews ideas
Decides which projects to take forward based on available resources
Personnel and funding
In the Problem and Opportunity Identification phase, problems or opportunities are defined. Whether solving an existing problem or responding to an opportunity, corporations usually generate more ideas for systems than they have the time and money to implement. Large corporations typically form a steering committee to evaluate system development proposals and decide which projects to take forward. They then document the process, and relevant problems or opportunities are defined.
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8. Analysis Analysts explore problem to be solved
Develop program specifications
Clear statement of goals and objectives of project
Feasibility assessment is performed
User requirements are defined
Analysts recommend a plan of action
In the Analysis phase, analysts explore the problem to be solved and develop a program specification. The program specification is a clear statement of the goals and objectives of the project at hand.
It is also at this stage that the first feasibility assessment is performed. The feasibility assessment determines whether the project should go forward by looking at the needs and resources available and determining whether the project can be completed at all.
Assuming the project is feasible, the analysis team studies the current system (if there is one) and defines the user requirements of the proposed system.
Finally, the analysts recommend a solution or plan of action, and the process moves to the Design phase.
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9. Design A detailed plan for programmers is developed
Flowcharts and data-flow diagrams are used for the current and proposed system
Data-flow diagram
In the Design phase of the SDLC, a detailed plan for programmers to follow is developed.
The current and proposed systems are documented using flowcharts and data-flow diagrams.
Flowcharts are visual diagrams of a process, including the decisions that need to be made along the way.
Data-flow diagrams trace all data in an information system from the point at which data enters the system to the point of its final resting place (storage or output).
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10. Development and Documentation
Actual programming takes place
First phase of the program development life cycle (PDLC)
It is during this phase that actual programming takes place.
This phase is also the first part of the program development life cycle (PDLC), described in detail in the rest of the chapter.
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11. Testing and Installation
Program is tested to ensure it works properly
Program is installed for use
The next step in the SDLC is testing the program to ensure it works properly and then installing the program so that it can be used.
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12. Maintenance and Evaluation
Performance of the system is monitored
Corrections and modifications to the program are made
Additional enhancements that users request are evaluated
Appropriate program modifications are made
Once the system is installed, its performance must be monitored to determine whether it is still meeting the needs of end users.
Bugs (errors) that were not detected in the testing phase but that users discover subsequently must be corrected.
Additional enhancements that users request are evaluated so that appropriate program modifications can be made.
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13. Joint Application Development
JAD helps designers adapt to changes in program specifications
Includes customer involvement
No communication delays
Also referred to as:
Accelerated design
Facilitated team technique
In each phase of the SDLC, a style of interaction named joint application development (JAD) is useful in creating successful, flexible results. JAD is popular because it helps designers adapt quickly to changes in program specifications. In JAD, the customer is involved in the project very closely, right from the beginning. Slow communication and lengthy feedback time are reasons the traditional development process is so time consuming. In JAD “workshops,” there are no communication delays. Workshops usually include end users, developers, subject experts, observers (such as senior management), and a facilitator. The facilitator enforces the rules of the meeting to make sure all voices are heard and agreement is reached as quickly as possible. Also called accelerated design or facilitated team technique, the goal of JAD is to improve design quality by fostering clear communication.
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14. Ethics in IT
The Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) have established eight principles for ethical software engineering practices:
Public
Client and Employer
Product
Judgment
Management
Profession
Colleagues
Self
The ACM and the IEEE have established eight principles for ethical software engineering practices:
Public: Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
Client and Employer: Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best interests of their client and employer consistent with the public interest.
Product: Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related modifications meet the highest professional standards possible.
Judgment: Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their professional judgment.
Management: Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the management of software development and maintenance.
Profession: Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the profession consistent with the public interest.
Colleagues: Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.
Self: Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their profession and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the profession.
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15. The Life Cycle of a Program
Programming is the process of translating a task into a series of commands a computer will use to perform that task
Programming involves:
Identifying the parts of a task the computer can perform
Describing tasks in a highly specific and complete manner
Translating this description into a language understood by the computer’s CPU
Programming is the process of translating a task into a series of commands a computer will use to perform that task. It involves
-Identifying which parts of a task a computer can perform
-Describing those tasks in a very specific and complete manner
-Translating this description into the language spoken by the computer’s CPU.
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16. Program Development Life Cycle
Just as an information system has a development life cycle, each programming project follows a number of stages from conception to final deployment—sometimes referred to as the program development life cycle (PDLC).
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17. Step 1: Describing the Problem
Programmers develop a complete description of problem
Problem statement identifies task to be automated
Statement describes how software will behave
Describing the Problem: First, programmers must develop a complete description of the problem. The problem statement identifies the task to be automated and describes how the software program will behave.
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18. Step 2: Making a Plan
Problem statement is translated into a set of specific, sequential steps known as an algorithm
Algorithm is written in natural ordinary language such as English
Making a Plan: The problem statement is next translated into a set of specific, sequential steps that describe exactly what the computer program must do to complete the work. The steps are known as an algorithm. At this stage, the algorithm is written in natural, ordinary language (such as English).
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19. Step 3: Coding Algorithm is translated into programming code
Programmers must think in terms of operations that a CPU can perform
Coding: The algorithm is then translated into programming code, a language that is friendlier to humans than the 1s and 0s that the CPU speaks but is still highly structured. By coding the algorithm, programmers must think in terms of the operations that a CPU can perform.
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20. Step 4: Debugging Code goes through process of debugging
Programmers repair any errors found in code
Debugging: The code then goes through a process of debugging in which the programmers repair any errors found in the code.
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21. Step 5: Finishing the Project
Software is tested
Programming team
People who will use program
Results of entire project are documented
Users are trained to use program efficiently
Finishing the Project: The software is tested by both the programming team and the people who will use the program. The results of the entire project are documented for the users and the development team. Finally, users are trained so that they can use the program efficiently.
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22. Describing the Problem
The Problem Statement
Staring point of programming work
Clear description of tasks the computer program must accomplish
How the program will execute these tasks
How the program will respond to unusual situations
The problem statement is the starting point of programming work. It is a clear description of what tasks the computer program must accomplish and how the program will execute these tasks and respond to unusual situations. Programmers develop problem statements so that they can better understand the goals of their programming efforts.
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23. Creating Problem Statements
Programmers interact with users to describe three relevant things:
Data – raw input users have at the start
Information – result users require
Method – process of how program converts the inputs to correct outputs
Most computer users understand what jobs (or problems) they want to computerize but not the details of the programming process. Therefore, the goal in creating a useful problem statement is to have programmers interact with users to describe three things relevant to creating a useful program: data, information, and method.
1. Data is the raw input that users have at the start of the job. It will be fed into the program.
2. Information is the result, or output, that the users require at the end of the job. The program produces this information from data.
3. Method, described precisely, is the process of how the program converts the inputs into the correct outputs.
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24. Parking Garage Example
Program Goal:
To compute the total pay for a fixed number of hours worked at a parking garage.
Inputs:
Number of Hours Worked a positive number
Outputs:
Total Pay Earned a positive number
Process:
The Total Pay Earned is computed as $7.50 per hour for the first eight hours worked each day. Any hours worked beyond the first eight are billed at $11.25 per hour.
Error Handling:
The input (Number of Hours Worked) must be a positive real number. If it is a negative number or other non-acceptable character, the program will force the user to re-enter the information.
Testing Plan:
INPUT
OUTPUT
NOTES 8
8*7.50
Testing positive input 3
3*7.50 12
8* *11.25
Testing overtime input –6
Error message/ask user to re-enter value
Handling error
All problem statements include the same basic components:
1. The input that is the data that will be entered.
2. The output that is the information that is expected to be produced.
3. The processing that is the rules for transforming the input into output.
4. The error handling that is the explanation of how the program will respond if the users enter data that doesn’t make sense.
5. The testing plan.
In this table, we see a problem statement for the Parking Garage example. From here, the programmer can start to write code that satisfies the plan.
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25. Making a Plan Algorithm Development Set of specific sequential steps
Describe exactly what computer program must do to complete task
Use natural language
Once programmers understand exactly what the program must do and have created the final problem statement, they can begin developing a detailed algorithm, a set of specific, sequential steps that describe in natural language exactly what the computer program must do to complete its task. Let’s look at some ways in which programmers design and test algorithms.
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26. Flowchart
Flowcharts provide a visual representation of the patterns an algorithm follows. Specific shape symbols indicate program behaviors and decision types. For example, diamonds indicate that a binary decision and branching action will be performed, and rectangles indicate a program instruction.
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27. Pseudocode
Bold terms show actions that are common in programming, such as reading data, making decisions, printing, and so on.
1. Ask the user how many hours they worked today
2. If the number of hours worked < = 8,
compute total pay without overtime
otherwise,
compute total pay with overtime pay
3. Print total pay
Pseudocode is a text-based approach to documenting an algorithm. In pseudocode, words describe the actions that the algorithm will take. Pseudocode is organized like an outline, with differing levels of indentation to indicate the flow of actions within the program.
Underlined words are information items that appear repeatedly in the algorithm.
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28. Developing the Algorithm
Decision Making and Design
Convert problem statement into list of steps or actions
Only simplest algorithms execute same series of actions every time they run
Complex problems involve choices and include decision points
When programmers develop an algorithm, they convert the problem statement into a list of steps (or actions) the program will take. For simple problems, this list is straightforward: The program completes this action first, that action second, another action third, and so on. However, only the simplest algorithms execute the same series of actions every time they run.
Problems that are more complex involve choices and, therefore, cannot follow a sequential list of steps to generate the correct output. Instead, the list of steps created for complex problems includes decision points, places where the program must choose from an array of different actions based on the value of its current inputs. For example, a binary decision (shown in a flowchart as a diamond) will have two possible paths that can be taken, depending on the value of the inputs. Programmers convert a problem into an algorithm by listing the sequence of actions that must be taken and recognizing the places where decisions must be made.
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29. Top-Down Design Problem is divided into a series of high-level tasks
Detailed subtasks are created from high-level tasks
Top-down design is a systematic approach in which a problem is broken down into a series of high-level tasks.
In top-down design, programmers apply the same strategy repeatedly, breaking down each task into successively more detailed subtasks.
They continue until they have a sequence of steps that are close to the types of commands allowed by the programming language they will use for coding.
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30. Object-Oriented Analysis
Classes (categories of inputs) are identified
Classes are defined by information (data) and actions (methods or behaviors)
Reusability is key
A very different approach to generating an algorithm is object-oriented analysis. With object-oriented analysis, programmers first identify all of the categories of inputs that are part of the problem the program is trying to solve. These categories are called classes. For example, the classes in our parking garage example might include a TimeCard class and an Employee class.
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31. Writing Program Code
Programmers select best programming language for the problem
Translate the algorithm into that language
Translation is act of coding
Once programmers create an algorithm, they select the best programming language for the problem and then translate the algorithm into that language.
Translating an algorithm into a programming language is the act of coding. Programming languages are (somewhat!) readable by humans but then are translated into patterns of 1s and 0s to be understood by the CPU.
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32. Generations of Programming Languages
Level
Generation
Example
Low
1GL
Machine
2GL
Assembly
High
3GL
FORTRAN, BASIC, C, Java
4GL
SQL
Natural
5GL
PROLOG
A first-generation language (1GL) is the actual machine language of a CPU, the sequence of bits (1s and 0s) that the CPU understands.
A second-generation language (2GL) is also known as an assembly language. Assembly languages allow programmers to write their programs using a set of short, English-like commands that speak directly to the CPU and give the programmer direct control of hardware resources.
A third-generation language (3GL) uses symbols and commands to help programmers tell the computer what to do. This makes 3GL languages easier for humans to read and remember. Most programming languages today, including BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, C/C++, and Java, are considered third generation.
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a database programming language that is an example of a fourth-generation language (4GL). Many other database query languages and report generators are also 4GLs. The following single SQL command would check a huge table of data on the employees and build a new table showing all those employees who worked overtime:
Fifth-generation languages are considered the most “natural” of languages. In a 5GL, a problem is presented as a series of facts or constraints instead of as a specific algorithm. The system of facts can then be queried (asked) questions. PROLOG (PROgramming LOGic) is an example of a 5GL.
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33. Coding Speaking the Language of the Computer Syntax Keywords
Agreed-upon set of rules of language used
Keywords
Set of words with predefined meanings
Data types
Describe the kind of data being stored in memory
Operators
Coding symbols that represent fundamental actions
Programming languages are evolving constantly. New languages emerge every year, and existing languages change dramatically. Therefore, it would be extremely difficult and time consuming for programmers to learn every programming language. However, all languages have several common elements: rules of syntax, a set of keywords, a group of supported data types, and a set of allowed operators. By learning these four concepts, a programmer will be better equipped to approach any new language.
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34. Compilation
Compilation is the process of converting code into machine language
A compiler reads the source code and translates it into machine language
After compilation, programmers have an executable program
Compilation is the process by which code is converted into machine language, the language the CPU can understand.
A compiler is a program that understands both the syntax of the programming language and the exact structure of the CPU and its machine language. It can “read” the source code—the instructions programmers have written in the higher-level language—and translate the source code directly into machine language—the binary patterns that will execute commands on the CPU.
At this stage, programmers finally have produced an executable program, the binary sequence that instructs the CPU to run their code.
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35. Interpreter
Some programming languages do not have a compiler, but use an interpreter instead
The interpreter translates source code into a line-by-line intermediate form
Each line is executed before the next line is compiled
Programmers do not have to wait for the entire program to be recompiled each time they make a change
Programmers can immediately see the results of changes as they are making them
An interpreter translates the source code into an intermediate form, line by line. Each line is then executed as it is translated.
The compilation process takes longer than the interpretation process because in compilation, all of the lines of source code are translated into machine language before any lines are executed.
The finished compiled program runs faster than an interpreted program because the interpreter is constantly translating and executing as it goes.
Programmers can immediately see the results of their program changes as they are making them in the code.
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36. Coding Tools Integrated Development Environment
Developmental tool that helps programmers write, compile, and test programs
Every language has its own specific IDE
Modern programming is supported by a collection of tools that make the writing and testing of software easier. Compiler products feature an integrated development environment (IDE), a developmental tool that helps programmers write, compile, and test their programs. As is the case with compilers, every language has its own specific IDE.
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37. Debugging Getting Rid of Errors
Process of running program over and over
To find errors
To make sure the program behaves the way it should
Once the program has compiled without syntax errors, it has met all of the syntax rules of the language. However, this doesn’t mean that the program behaves in a logical way or that it appropriately addresses the task the algorithm described. If programmers made errors in the strategy used in the algorithm or in how they translated the algorithm to code, problems will occur. The process of running the program over and over to find errors and to make sure the program behaves in the way it should is termed debugging .
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38. Finishing the Project Testing and Documentation
Internal testing – a group with the software company uses program in every way possible
External testing – people like those who will eventually purchase the program work with it
Once debugging has detected all of the runtime errors in the code, it is time for users to test the program. This process is called internal testing. In internal testing, a group within the software company uses the program in every way it can imagine—including how it was intended to be used and in ways only new users may think up. The internal testing group makes sure the program behaves as described in the original testing plan. Any differences in how the program responds are reported back to the programming team, which makes the final revisions and updates to the code.
The next round of testing is external testing. In this testing round, people like the ones that eventually will purchase and use the software must work with it to determine whether it matches their original vision.
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39. Programming Languages
Many languages for many projects
Create a solution to meet several competing objectives
Software must run quickly and reliably
Simple to expand when demands change
Completed on time for minimal cost
Use smallest amount of system resources
In any programming endeavor, programmers want to create a solution that meets several competing objectives. They want the software to run quickly and reliably and to be simple to expand later when the demands on the system change. They also want it to be completed on time and for the minimum possible cost, and to use the smallest amount of system resources possible.
Because it will always be difficult to balance these conflicting goals, a wide variety of programming languages has been developed. Earlier in the chapter, you learned about the five main categories (generations) of programming languages. In this section, we discuss the specific programming languages that are members of these different generations. Although programming languages often share many common characteristics, each language has specific traits that allow it to be the best fit for certain types of projects.
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40. Selecting the Right Language
Programming team considers several factors
Space available
Speed required
Organizational resources available
Type of target application
A programming team considers several factors before selecting the language it will use for a specific project.
Space available: Not all languages produce code that takes up the same amount of space. Therefore, the target language should be well matched to the amount of space available for the final program. For example, if the program will be embedded in a chip for use in a cell phone, then it is important for the language to create space-efficient programs.
Speed required: Although poorly written code executes inefficiently in any language, some languages can execute more quickly than others can. Some projects require a focus on speed rather than size. These projects require a language that produces code that executes in the fastest possible time.
Organizational resources available: Another consideration is the resources available in a manager’s group or organization. Selecting a language that is easy to use and will be easy to maintain if there is a turnover in programmers is an important consideration. Managers also may factor in the existing pool of talent available for the project. Having to train five programmers to tackle a project in a new language would have significant disadvantages over allowing them to work in a familiar language.
Type of target application: Certain languages are customized to support a specific environment (UNIX or Windows, for instance). Knowing which languages are most commonly used for which environments can be helpful.
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41. Building Applications
Programs often have a number of common features
Scroll bars
Title bars
Text boxes
Buttons
Several languages include controls that make it easy to include these features
Software programs that run under the Windows OS are extremely popular. These programs often have a number of common features—scroll bars, title bars, text boxes, buttons, and expanding or collapsing menus, to name a few. Several languages include customized controls that make it easy for programmers to include these features in their programs. The same is true for the OS/X operating system. We’ll look at tools that are helpful for building applications for each.
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42. Visual Basic 2010 Visual Basic 2010 is the current version
Builds object-oriented applications for:
Windows
The Web
Mobile Devices
Easy to drag and drop entire programming components into application
Visual Basic 2010 is the current version of Visual Basic and is designed for building object-oriented applications for Windows, the Web, and mobile devices. Interface of Visual Basic makes it easy to drag and drop entire programming components into an application. Visual Basic 2010 provides a multitude of features that are new or an improvement on the previous versions. These changes make development with Visual Basic easier and produce more efficient code than with any earlier version. Visual Basic 2010 and the .NET Framework are both part of Visual Studio 2010, which provides a complete set of developer tools.
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43. C and C++ C C++ Developed for system programmers
Provides higher-level programming features
if statements and for loops
C++
Uses same symbols and keywords as C
Better security
Support for reuse of existing code
Includes object-oriented design
C was originally developed for system programmers. It provides higher-level programming language features (such as if statements and for loops) but still allows programmers to manipulate the system memory and CPU registers directly. This mix of high- and low-level access makes C very attractive to “power” programmers. Most modern operating systems (including Windows Vista, Windows 7, Mac OS X, and Linux) are written in C.
C++ uses all of the same symbols and keywords as C, but extends the language with additional keywords, better security, and more support for the reuse of existing code through object-oriented design.
Programmers often choose to learn C/C++ because their basic components (operators, data types, and keywords) are common to many other languages.
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44. Java and C# Java C# Object-oriented features
Large set of existing classes
Architecture neutral
Java applets: Small Java-based programs C#
Completing program released by Microsoft
Java’s object-oriented model enables Java programmers to benefit from its large set of existing classes.
An attractive feature of Java is that it is architecture neutral. This means that Java code needs to be compiled only once, and it can run on many CPUs. The Java program does not care what CPU, OS, or user interface is running on the machine where it lands.
This is possible because the target computer runs a Java Virtual Machine (VM), software that can explain to the Java program how to function on any specific system.
A Java VM installed with Microsoft Internet Explorer, for example, allows Internet Explorer to execute any Java applets (small Java-based programs) it encounters on the Internet.
Microsoft has released a language named C# (pronounced “see sharp”) that competes with Java.
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45. Objective C
Language most often used to program applications to run under Mac OS X
Object-oriented language
Superset of the C language
Often used with library called Cocoa
Objective C is the language most often used to program applications to run under Mac OS X. It is an object-oriented style of language, a superset of the C language so it includes all of the keywords of C and then adds more keywords and features. It is often used together with a library called Cocoa. The Cocoa library, or framework, lets users program for the Mac OS X graphical user interface. The Cocoa Touch extension introduces a framework of methods that support gesture recognition for touch devices like the iPhone or iPad.
Many different IDE tools support Objective C, but OS X ships with a tool named Xcode, that is often used to develop Objective C applications for OS X. The version 4 release of Xcode, is a paid application that can be purchased and downloaded from the online Mac App Store.
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46. Building Web Applications
HTML/XHTML
HyperText Markup Language/eXtensible HyperText Markup Language
Not a true programming language
Uses special symbols (tags) to control how Web pages are viewed
HTML/XHTML is not a programming language. Rather, HTML/XHTML is a series of tags that modify the display of text. HTML was the original standard defining these tags. XHTML is a newer standard that corrects some of the problems found in HTML.
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47. Scripting Languages for the Web
Simple programming language limited to performing a set of specialized tasks
Scripts allow decisions to be made and calculations to be performed
JavaScript, VBScript, and PHP work well with HTML
To make their Web pages more visually appealing and interactive, programmers use scripting languages to add more power and flexibility to their HTML code. A scripting language is a simple programming language that is limited to performing a set of specialized tasks. Scripts allow decisions to be made and calculations to be performed. Several popular scripting languages work well with HTML, including JavaScript, VBScript, and PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor).
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48. ASP, JSP, and PHP
Used by programmers to build Web sites with interactive capabilities
User supplies information that is translated into a request.
Scripting code controls automatic writing of the custom page returned to user’s computer
To build Web sites with interactive capabilities, programmers use Active Server Pages (ASP), JavaServer Pages (JSP), or the scripting language PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) to adapt the HTML or XHTML page to the user’s selections. The user supplies information that is translated into a request by the main computer at the company that owns the Web site, often using a database query language such as SQL. Scripting code in ASP, JSP, or PHP controls the automatic writing of the custom HTML/XHTML page that is returned to the user’s computer.
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49. Flash and XML Adobe Flash XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
Used to develop Web-based multimedia
Includes its own scripting language, ActionScript
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
Enables designers to define data-based tags
Makes it easier for Web site to transfer key information on its page to another site
Adobe Flash is a software product used for developing Web-based multimedia. Flash includes its own programming language, ActionScript, which is very similar to JavaScript in its selection of keywords, operators, and classes.
Microsoft has a competing product named Silverlight that supports the development of rich multimedia and interactive Web applications.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language) enables designers to define their own data-based tags, making it much easier for a Web site to transfer the key information on its page to another site.
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50. AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript And XML
Allows creation of Web applications that can update information without requiring a page refresh
Uses existing technologies to do more processing in the browser
Users have a more responsive experience
Other advances, like the collection of technologies referred to as AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript And XML), and the continued evolution of HTML5 allow the creation of Web applications that can update information on a page without requiring the user to do a page refresh or leave the page. By using existing technologies to do more processing in the browser, users have a more responsive experience.
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51. Building Mobile Applications
Special languages and supporting tools help speed development of applications for mobile devices like smart phones and tablets
Specific features include GPS capability, software keyboards, and touch-sensitive screens
User interface must take smaller screen size into account
Special languages and supporting tools are helping speed the development of applications for mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. Programmers need to be able to take advantage of specific features like GPS capability, a compass, software keyboards, and touch-sensitive screens. In addition, the user interface has to take the smaller screen size into account.
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52. The Next Great Language
Never easy to predict which language will become the next “great” language
Experts predict that as projects grow in size, time to compile will also grow
Interpreted languages could become more important because they have virtually no compile time
Python, Ruby, and Smalltalk
It is never easy to predict which language will become the next “great” language. Software experts predict that as software projects continue to grow in size, the amount of time needed to compile a completed project will also grow. It is not uncommon for a large project to require 30 minutes or more to compile. Interpreted languages, however, have virtually no compile time because compilation occurs while the code is being edited.
As projects get larger, the capability to be compiled instantaneously will become even more important. Thus, interpreted languages such as Python, Ruby, and Smalltalk could become more important in the coming years.
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53. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
Why do I need to understand how to create software?
1. Why do I need to understand how to create software?
Programming skills allow you to customize existing software products to accomplish tasks you need. Even if you are not planning to pursue programming as a career, a beginning-level knowledge of programming will let you create macros, customized mini-programs to speed up redundant tasks.
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54. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
What is a system development life cycle, and what are the phases in the cycle?
2. What is a system development life cycle, and what are the phases in the cycle?
An information system includes data, people, procedures, hardware, and software. Teams of individuals are required to develop systems. Those teams need to follow an organized process (or set of steps) to ensure that development proceeds in an orderly fashion. This set of steps is usually referred to as the system development life cycle (SDLC). There are six steps in the SDLC waterfall model discussed earlier in this chapter: (1) A problem or opportunity is identified. (2) The problem is analyzed, and a program specification document is created to outline the project objectives. (3) A detailed plan for programmers to follow is designed using flowcharts and data-flow diagrams. (4) Using this plan, the program is developed and documented. (5) The program is tested to ensure that it works properly and is installed so that it can be used. (6) Ongoing maintenance and evaluation ensure a working product.
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55. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
What is the life cycle of a program?
3. What is the life cycle of a program?
Each programming project follows several stages from conception to final deployment. The problem statement identifies the task to be computerized and describes how the software program will behave. An algorithm is developed that specifies the sequence of steps that the program must take to complete the work. The algorithm is then translated into highly structured programming code. The code goes through the processes of debugging, in which the programmers find and repair any errors in the code; testing by the programming team; and further testing by the people who will use the program. The results of the entire project are documented for the users and the development team. Finally, users are trained so that they can use the program efficiently.
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56. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
What role does a problem statement play in programming?
4. What role does a problem statement play in programming?
The problem statement is an explicit description of what tasks the computer program must accomplish and how the program will execute these tasks and respond to unusual situations. It describes the input data that users will have at the start of the job, the output that the program will produce, and the exact processing that converts these inputs to outputs. In addition, the problem statement identifies potential errors and plans to address these errors.
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57. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
How do programmers create algorithms and move from algorithm to code?
5. How do programmers create algorithms and move from algorithm to code?
For simple problems, programmers create an algorithm by converting a problem statement into a list of steps (or actions) the program will take. For more complex problems, programmers must identify where decision points occur in the list of steps. Some decisions are yes/no (binary), whereas others create a repeating action (loop). Algorithms are documented in the form of a flowchart or in pseudocode. Programmers use either top-down or object-oriented analysis to produce the algorithm.
Computer code uses special words and strict rules to enable programmers to control the CPU without having to know all of its hardware details. Programming languages are classified in several major groupings, sometimes referred to as generations, with the first generation being machine language—the binary code of 1s and 0s that the computer understands. Assembly language is the next generation; it uses short, English-like commands that speak directly to the CPU and give the programmer direct control of hardware resources. Each successive generation in language development has relieved programmers of some of the burden of keeping track of what the hardware requires and more closely matches how humans think about problems.
Compilation is the process by which code is converted into machine language, the language the CPU can understand. A compiler is a program that understands both the syntax of the programming language and the exact structure of the CPU and its machine language. It can translate the instructions written by programmers in the higher-level language into machine language, the binary patterns that will execute commands on the CPU. Each programming language has its own compiler. Separate versions are required to compile code that will run on each different type of processor.
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58. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
What steps are involved in completing the program?
6. What steps are involved in completing the program?
If programmers make errors in the algorithm or in translating the algorithm to code, problems will occur. Programmers debug the program by running it constantly to find errors and to make sure the program behaves in the way it should. Once debugging has detected all the code errors, users, both within the company and outside the company, test the program in every way they can imagine—both as it was intended to be used and in ways only new users may think up. Before its commercial release, software is often provided at a reduced cost or no cost in a beta version to certain test sites or to interested users for a last round of testing.
Once testing is complete, technical writers create internal documentation for the program and external documentation that will be provided to users of the program. User training, which begins once the software is distributed, teaches the user community how to use the software efficiently.
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59. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
How do programmers select the right programming language for a specific task?
7. How do programmers select the right programming language for a specific task?
A programming team reviews several considerations before selecting the language. First, certain languages are best used with certain problems. Second, the target language should be well matched to the amount of space available for the final program. Third, some projects require the selection of a language that can produce code that executes in the fastest possible time. Finally, selecting a language with which the programmers are familiar is also helpful.
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60. Chapter 10 Summary Questions
What are the most popular programming languages for different types of application development?
8. What are the most popular programming languages for different types of application development?
Visual Basic, C/C++, and Java are languages that enable programmers to include Windows control features such as scroll bars, title bars, text boxes, buttons, and expanding and collapsing menus. Objective C is a language used in programming applications to run under Mac OS X. Programmers use HTML/XHTML tags to structure for Web pages. For more complex Web development, scripting programs such as JavaScript and VBScript are popular. Web page animations are done with ASP, JSP, PHP, Flash, Silverlight and XML.
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61. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  
Publishing as Prentice Hall