1. The Toulmin Model in Brief “The heart of moral experience does not lie in a mastery of general rules and theoretical principles, however sound and well reasoned those principles may appear. It is located rather, in the wisdom that comes from seeing how the ideas behind those rules work out in the course of people's lives: in particular, seeing more exactly what is involved in insisting on (or waiving) this or that rule in one or another set of circumstances.”

2. A popular form of argument is the Toulmin model. This model is named after Stephen Toulmin, who in The Uses of Argument proposed that every good argument has six parts. The first three parts are essential to all argument. They include: 1) the claim, 2) the data or support, and 3) the warrant. Arguments may also contain one or more of three additional elements: 4) the backing, 5) the rebuttal, and 6) the qualifier.

3. Claim The claim is the main point (thesis) of the argument. Plan a claim by asking, “What do I want to prove?” Your response is your claim. Like a thesis, the claim can either be explicit or implicit. Whether it is implied or explicitly stated, the claim organizes the entire argument, and everything else in the argument is related to it. The best way to check your claim during revision is by completing this statement: “I have convinced my audience to think that...”

4. DATA Data supplies the evidence, opinions, reasoning, examples, and factual information about the claim that make it possible for the reader to accept it. Synonyms for data are proof, evidence and reasons. To plan support, ask, “What information do I need to supply to convince my audience of my main point (claim). Common types of support include: 1)facts and statistics 2)opinions (authorities and personal). When using personal opinion, it should be convincing, original, impressive and interesting and backed by factual knowledge, experience, good reasoning and judgment. When revising your argument, to help you focus on and recognize the support, complete this sentence: “I want my audience to believe that... [the claim] because... [list the support].”

5. Warrants Warrants are the assumptions, general principles, the conventions of specific disciplines, widely held values, commonly accepted beliefs, and appeals to human motives that are an important part of any argument. Warrants originate with the arguer, but also exist in the minds of the audience. Warrants represent the psychology of an argument in that they reveal the unspoken beliefs and values of the author and invite the reader to examine his /her own beliefs and make comparisons. Types: Motivational/Authoritative/Substantive

6. BACKING Backing is additional evidence provided to support or “back up” a warrant whenever there is a strong possibility that your audience will reject it. When reviewing your argument to determine whether backing is needed, identify the warrant and then determine whether or not you accept it. If you do not, try to anticipate additional information that would make it more acceptable.

7. REBUTTAL A rebuttal establishes what is wrong, invalid, or unacceptable about an argument and may also present counterarguments, or new arguments that represent entirely different perspectives or points of view on the issue. Plan a rebuttal by asking, “what are the other possible views on this issue?” and “how can I answer them? Phrases that introduce refutation include, “some may disagree,” “others may think,” or “other commonly held opinions are,” followed by the opposing ideas.

8. Qualifiers An argument is not expected to demonstrate certainties. Instead, it usually only establishes probabilities. Therefore, avoid presenting information as absolutes or certainties. Qualify what you say with phrases such as “very likely,” “probably,” “it seems,” and “many.”

9. Claim: The Vikings will win the Superbowl next year. Question: What are you basing that claim on? Data: They have the best defense in the league. Question: Why does the fact they have the best defense lead you to believe that the team with the best defense will win? Warrant: The team with the best defense won the last five years.

10. Example Claim: The senior year of high school should be eliminated and replaced with college/work apprenticeships/technical school education. What am I basing this claim on? Data: Seniors are unmotivated, more likely to drop out of school, have met the state standards for graduation. Why does the fact that they are unmotivated lead you to believe they are ready for college or career focused further education? Warrant: Students in the PSEOP program report more meaningful education experiences and are more likely to successfully complete college/technical school/apprenticeships and enter the work force.