1. COMPUTER NETWORKS

2. Unit -2 Continue... Physical Layer Connection –Oriented Networks : X.25 Relay Frames Types of cables Co-axial Fiber optics Twisted pair Unshielded and shielded Twisted pair

3. Unit -2 Continue... The Data Link Layer 3.1 Data Link Layer Design Issues : The data link layer has a number of specific functions it can carry out. These functions include 1. Providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer. 2. Dealing with transmission errors. 3. Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped by fast senders.

4. Figure 2-1. Relationship between packets and frames.

5. Text Books 2.1.1 Services Provided to the Network Layer Figure 2-2. (a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.

6. 2.1.1 Types of Services DLL Provides to the NL Unit 2. Continue.... The data link layer can be designed to offer various services. The actual services offered can vary from system to system. Three reasonable possibilities that are commonly provided are : 1. Unacknowledged connectionless service. 2. Acknowledged connectionless service. 3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.

7. 2.1.2 Framing Framing includes four methods: 1. Character count. 2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing. 3. Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing. 4. Physical layer coding violations. Unit 2. Continue....

8. 1. Character count. Figure 2-3. A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error. Unit 2. Continue....

9. 2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing Figure 2-4. (a) A frame delimited by flag bytes. (b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after byte stuffing. Unit 2. Continue....

10. 3. Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing. Introduction to Computer Networks Figure 2-5. Bit stuffing. (a) The original data. (b) The data as they appear on the line. (c) The data as they are stored in the receiver's memory after destuffing.

11. 4. Physical layer coding violations. The last method of framing is only applicable to networks in which the encoding on the physical medium contains some redundancy. For example, some LANs encode 1 bit of data by using 2 physical bits. Normally, a 1 bit is a high-low pair and a 0 bit is a low-high pair. The scheme means that every data bit has a transition in the middle, making it easy for the receiver to locate the bit boundaries. The combinations high-high and low-low are not used for data but are used for delimiting frames in some protocols. Unit 2. Continue....