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2. Skeletal Structure and Function Skeletal system – Composed of bones, cartilages, and ligaments joined tightly form strong flexible framework for the body – Cartilage forerunner of bone in embryonic development covers many joint surfaces 2

3. Skeletal Structure and Function Skeletal system (cont) – Ligaments collagenous bands hold bones together at joints – Tendons structurally similar to ligaments attach muscle to bone – Bone marrow soft material enclosed in bones 3

4. Skeletal Structure and Function: Functions of the Skeletal System Principal functions – Support bones of limbs and vertebral column support body mandible and maxilla support teeth some viscera supported by bones 4

5. Skeletal Structure and Function: Functions of the Skeletal System Principal functions (cont) – Protection brain and spinal cord lungs, heart, and pelvic viscera – Movement provide attachment and leverage for muscles allow for limb movement and ventilation 5

6. Skeletal Structure and Function: Functions of the Skeletal System Principal functions (cont) – Blood formation the major producer of blood cells – Storage body’s main reservoir of calcium and phosphorus released when needed for other functions bone marrow, reserve of stored fuel 6

7. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Osseous tissue – Hard, calcified tissue of bone – Compact bone solidly filled with opaque matrix encloses spongy bone – Spongy bone porous lattice with spaces found on interior of bone 7

8. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Bone cells – Osteogenic cells stem cells capable of making more cells give rise to osteoblasts – Osteoblasts synthesize organic matter of bone – Osteocytes former osteoblasts trapped in deposited matrix – Osteoclasts bone-dissolving cells 8

9. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Bone matrix – Surrounds osteocytes and lacunae – One-third organic by weight include collagen and protein–carbohydrate complexes – Two-thirds inorganic by weight 85% calcium phosphate calcium carbonate, magnesium, potassium, and fluoride 9

10. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Minerals in matrix – Resist compression – Enable bones to support the body – E.g., in rickets and osteomalacia bones mineral-deficient and easily deformed 10

11. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Collagen in matrix – Gives bones ability to resist tension – Bones can bend without breaking 11

12. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Spongy (cancellous) bone – Porous lattice of rods and plates, trabeculae – Calcified and hard – Spongelike appearance – Spaces filled with bone marrow and blood vessels – Imparts strength, while adding minimum of weight 12

13. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Compact (dense) bone – Forms outer shell surrounding spongy bone – Prevents bone marrow from seeping out – Provides solid attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments – At surface, organized in parallel layers 13

14. Skeletal Structure and Function: Osseous (Bone) Tissue Compact (dense) bone (cont) – Deeper, organized into osteons – Layers called lamellae arranged concentrically around central canal contains small blood vessels and nerves – Osteocytes in lacunae between lamellae 14

15. Histology of Osseous Tissue: Compact Bone (Figure 6.3a, c) 15

16. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Long bones – Most bones of the limbs specialized for leverage and movement – Shaft, or diaphysis elongated midsection provides leverage – Head, or epiphysis expanded end strengthens joints provide area for tendon and ligament attachment filled with spongy bone (and in nearby shaft) 16

17. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Long bone features – Articular cartilage hyaline cartilage covers ends where bones meet eases joint movements – Medullary cavity long cavity inside diaphysis contains bone marrow – Epiphyseal lines in adults, mark former growth zones 17

18. General Anatomy of a Long Bone (Figure 6.4)

19. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Flat bone features – Protective plates covering organs e.g., sternum and heart e.g., cranial bones and brain – May provide attachment surfaces for muscles e.g., scapula – Two layers of compact bone – Middle layer of spongy bone 19

20. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Other categories of bones – Short bones e.g., wrist bones – Irregular bones e.g., vertebrae 20

21. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Periosteum – Fibrous sheath covering the bone – Collagen fibers continuous with tendons penetrate into bone itself – None over articular cartilage – Covers both sides of flat bone 21

22. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Endosteum – Covers internal surface of bone – Covers spongy bone in middle of flat bone 22

23. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Red bone marrow – Produces blood cells and platelets – Fills nearly every bone of a child’s skeleton more limited distribution in adults – Soft network of delicate blood vessels surrounded by reticular tissue and blood-forming cells 23

24. Skeletal Structure and Function: Gross Anatomy of Bones Yellow bone marrow – Replaces much of red bone marrow in maturity – Fatty marrow 24

25. Distribution of Red and Yellow Bone Marrow (Figure 6.6) 25

26. Skeletal Structure and Function Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts What are the four types of cells in bone tissue? Which type dissolves bone? Which type are trapped in lacunae? Osteoclasts Osteocytes 26

27. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Ossification – Formation of bone – Mesenchyme soft embryonic connective tissue forerunner of adult bone, muscle, blood, and others starting point of ossification 27

28. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Intramembranous ossification – Produces flat bones of the skull and clavicle – Plays role in thickening, strengthening, and remodeling bone continues past age bones can no longer grow in length 28

29. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of intramembranous ossification 1) Osteoid tissue deposited into embryonic mesenchyme deposited by mesenchymal cells tissue like bone but not hardened 2) Crystallization of minerals on collagen fibers of osteoid calcium phosphate and others harden matrix into spongy bone trabeculae osteocytes trapped in space between bones 29

30. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of intramembranous ossification (cont) 3) Condensation of mesenchyme adjacent to bone form fibrous periosteum spongy bone becoming calcified trabeculae 4) Compact bone formed at surfaces done by osteoblasts spongy bone left in middle 30

31. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Endochondral ossification – Produces most other bones e.g., vertebra, ribs, and pelvic bones e.g., limbs and parts of skull – Mesenchyme first transformed into hyaline cartilage – Cartilage broken down, replaced by osseous tissue 31

32. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of endochondral ossification 1) Early hyaline cartilage approximates shape of future bone covered with perichondrium 2) Formation of primary ossification center near cartilage middle osteoblasts depositing layer of bone around cartilage fibrous sheath now periosteum 32

33. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of endochondral ossification (cont) 3) Blood vessels invading ossification center primary marrow cavity formed secondary ossification center at one end of bone 4) Enlargement of marrow cavity at epiphysis (by birth) second marrow cavity hollowed out development of another ossification center at other end metaphysis, transitional zone – where cartilage being replaced by bone 33

34. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of endochondral ossification (cont) 5) Primary and secondary cavities separated by wall termed epiphyseal plate growth zone middle layer of hyaline cartilage metaphysis on each side active throughout childhood and adolescence 34

35. Bone Development and Metabolism: Ossification Steps of endochondral ossification (cont) 6) Reserve cartilage in epiphyseal plate depleted attain maximum adult height by late teens to early twenties 35

36. Endochondral Ossification (Figure 6.8)

37. Bone Development and Metabolism: Growth and Remodeling Changes in bone – Continue throughout life – E.g., limbs becoming longer in kids – E.g., changing curvature of cranium in kids – E.g., from increased tension of the bone athletes with greater bone mass than sedentary people 37

38. Bone Development and Metabolism: Growth and Remodeling Interstitial growth – One method of bone growth – Chondrocytes multiply, enlarge, and secrete new matrix – Occurs in epiphyseal plate – Adds length until plate depleted – Osseous tissue deposited in channels created by chondrocytes 38

39. Bone Development and Metabolism: Growth and Remodeling Epiphyseal plate – Transparent line across end of bone appears on kids’ X-rays appearance of gap between epiphysis and diaphysis – Plates “close” when cartilage depleted no longer a gap between epiphysis and diaphysis – Epiphyseal line mark left behind by epiphyseal plate 39

40. Bone Development and Metabolism: Growth and Remodeling Appositional growth – Other means of cartilage and bone growth – Only type in mature bone – New matrix deposited on tissue surface – Occurs by intramembranous ossification 40

41. Bone Development and Metabolism: Growth and Remodeling Appositional growth (cont) – Osteoid deposited by osteoblasts in periosteum – Calcify tissue and become trapped as osteocytes – Tissue laid down in layers parallel to surface – Medullary cavity enlarged osteoclasts dissolving bone on inner surface 41

42. Bone Development and Metabolism: Mineral Homeostasis Bone exchange of minerals – Skeleton the primary reservoir of calcium and phosphate phosphate roles – component of DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids, and others calcium roles – muscle contraction and blood clotting – exocytosis and nervous communication – response to hormones 42

43. Bone Development and Metabolism: Mineral Homeostasis Mineral deposition by osteoblasts – Extract calcium phosphate and other ions from blood – Deposit in osseous tissue Mineral resorption by osteoclasts – Dissolve bone – Release minerals into blood – Requires critical balance with deposition can cause bone abnormalities if either unbalanced 43

44. Bone Development and Metabolism Intramembranous ossification Which type of ossification produces the flat bones of the skull and most of the clavicle? Which type produces most other bones, including the bones of limbs? Endochondral ossification 44

45. The Axial Skeleton Learning Outcomes: (cont) e. Describe the general features of the vertebral column, general structure of a vertebra and intervertebral disc, and regional differences between the vertebrae. f. Describe the anatomy of the ribs and sternum, regional differences between the ribs, and the articulation of the ribs with the vertebral column and sternum. 45

46. The Axial Skeleton Bone markings – Ridges, spines, and bumps – Depressions, holes, and joint surfaces – Canal tubular passage in a bone – Condyle rounded knob 46

47. The Axial Skeleton Bone markings (cont) – Crest narrow ridge – Epicondyle flare superior to condyle – Facet smooth mostly flat joint surface – Fissure slit through bone 47

48. The Axial Skeleton Bone markings (cont) – Foramen hole through a bone – Fossa basin – Process bony prominence – Sinus cavity within a bone 48

49. The Axial Skeleton Bone markings (cont) – Spine sharp, slender, or narrow process – Tubercle small rounded process – Tuberosity rough surface 49

50. The Axial Skeleton Two skeletal regions – Axial skeleton central supporting axis of body includes skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum – Appendicular skeleton includes bones of upper limb and pectoral girdle includes bones of lower limb and pelvic girdle 50

51. The Adult Skeleton (Figure 6.11)

52. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Skull – Most complex part of skeleton – One freely movable bone, mandible – 21 relatively immobile bones connected by sutures joints appearing as seams on skull – With many foramina holes for passage of nerves and blood vessels 52

53. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Skull cavities – Cranial cavity encloses the brain – Orbits eye sockets – Nasal cavity – Oral (buccal) cavity 53

54. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Skull cavities (cont) – Middle- and inner-ear cavities – Paranasal sinuses air-filled spaces connected to nasal cavity named for bones in which they occur – frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary 54

55. The Paranasal Sinuses (Figure 6.13)

56. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Bones of skull – 8 cranial bones form cranium in direct contact with membranes enclosing brain 2 parietal and temporal bones 1 frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bone – 14 facial bones 56

57. The Skull, Anterior View (Figure 6.12)

58. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Frontal bone – Forms forehead roof of orbit anterior third of roof of cranial cavity – Has supraorbital foramen ridge with small hole in eyebrow region for passage of a nerve, artery, and vein 58

59. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Frontal bone (cont) – Has frontal sinus – Infant with separate right and left normally fuse into single bone 59

60. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Parietal bones – Form most of cranial roof and part of walls – Begin at the coronal suture separates them from frontal bone – Extend to lambdoid suture at rear – Separated by longitudinal sagittal suture 60

61. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Temporal bones – Form region around ears part of lower wall and floor of cranial cavity 61

62. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Temporal bone features – Zygomatic process spine from temple forms part of zygomatic arch – completed by zygomatic bone and part of the maxilla – External acoustic meatus auditory canal 62

63. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Temporal bone features (cont) – Mastoid process lump behind earlobe – Styloid process provides attachment for muscle of throat – Mandibular fossa depression on inferior surface where mandible articulates with cranium 63

64. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Temporal bone features (cont) – Carotid canal passage for internal carotid artery – Jugular foramen passage for internal jugular vein – Contains middle- and inner-ear cavities 64

65. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Occipital bone – Forms rear of skull and much of its base – Contains foramen magnum opening admitting spinal cord to cranial cavity – Occipital condyles knobs on both sides of foramen magnum where skull rests on vertebral column 65

66. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Sphenoid bone – Thick median body with outstretched wings – Pair of sphenoid sinuses – Sella turcica saddlelike structure housing pituitary gland – Part of lateral cranium – Part of wall of the orbit 66

67. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Sphenoid bone (cont) – Optic canal permits passage of optic nerve – Superior orbital fissure allows passage of nerves supplying eye muscles – Posterior nasal apertures paired openings of nasal cavity 67

68. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Ethmoid bone – Located between orbits – Forms roof of nasal cavity – Honeycombed with air cells of ethmoid sinus – Vertical perpendicular plate forms superior part of nasal septum divides nasal cavity into right and left spaces – nasal fossae 68

69. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Ethmoid bone (cont) – Nasal conchae project into fossa from lateral wall superior and middle conchae, extensions of ethmoid bone – Cribriform plates perforations for nerve fibers for smell separated by median ridge, crista galli 69

70. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Facial bones – Shape the face – Support internal structures of oral and nasal cavities – 2 maxillae, palatine, zygomatic, and lacrimal bones – 2 nasal bones and inferior nasal conchae – 1 vomer and mandible 70

71. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Maxillae – Form upper jaw and support teeth – Form the floor and medial walls of the orbit – Inferior orbital fissure passage within orbit for blood vessels and nerve – Forms four-fifths of hard palate anterior part of roof of mouth 71

72. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Palatine bones – L-shaped bones – Form posterior one-fifth of hard palate part of nasal cavity wall part of floor of orbit 72

73. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Zygomatic bones – Form angles of cheeks inferolateral to eyes part of lateral wall of orbit – Each with inverted T shape – Prominent zygomatic arch from zygomatic, temporal bones, and maxilla 73

74. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Lacrimal bones – Form part of medial wall of each orbit – House membranous sacs collect tears from eyes drain into nasal cavity 74

75. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Nasal bones – Form bridge of nose – Support cartilages that shape lower nose Inferior nasal conchae – Separate bone – Largest of three choncha 75

76. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Vomer – Forms lower part of nasal septum – Joins perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone 76

77. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Mandible – Supports lower teeth – Provides attachment for muscles of mastication – Horizontal portion, body contains teeth – Posterior part, ramus meets with body at the angle anterior coronoid process, and posterior condylar process 77

78. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Mandible (cont) – Mandibular condyle caps condylar process meets temporal bone to form hinge of jaw – termed temporomandibular joint (TMJ) – Mental foramen on anterolateral surface of body hole for passage of nerves and blood vessels of chin 78

79. The Skull, Lateral View (Figure 6.14a) 79

80. The Base of the Skull (Figure 6.15a) 80

81. The Base of the Skull (Figure 6.15b) 81

82. The Orbital (Eye) Region (Figure 6.17) 82

83. The Axial Skeleton: The Skull Bones associated with skull – Three auditory ossicles in each middle ear – Hyoid beneath chin attachment site – for muscles controlling mandible, tongue, and larynx 83

84. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Vertebral column – Physically supports skull and trunk – Protects spinal cord – Absorbs stresses of walking and lifting – Provides attachments for limbs, thoracic cage, and postural muscles 84

85. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Parts of vertebral column – Flexible chain of 33 vertebrae – 23 cartilaginous intervertebral discs – 7 cervical vertebrae in neck – 12 thoracic vertebrae in chest – 5 lumbar vertebrae in lower back 85

86. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Parts of vertebral column (cont) – 5 sacral vertebrae at base of spine fused as single bone, sacrum – 4 tiny coccygeal vertebrae fused as single bone, coccyx 86

87. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Curves of vertebral column – Column C-shaped at birth – Beyond age 3, slightly S-shaped four bends – cervical, thoracic, lumbar, pelvic curvatures makes bipedal walking possible – Abnormal spinal curvatures scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis 87

88. The Vertebral Column (Figure 6.18) 88

89. Adult Spinal Curvatures (Figure 6.19) 89

90. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Structure of vertebra – Body (centrum), weight-bearing portion rough surfaces with attachments to intervertebral discs – Vertebral foramen opening posterior to body 90

91. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Structure of vertebra (cont) – Vertebral arch encloses vertebral foramen consists of pair of flat of plates, laminae supported on pair of pillars, pedicles – collectively form vertebral canal – passage for the spinal cord 91

92. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Structure of vertebra (cont) – Spinous process extends from apex of arch directed toward rear and downward – Transverse processes extend laterally from arch – Both processes provide attachment for ligaments and muscles 92

93. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Structure of vertebra (cont) – Superior articular processes project upward from one vertebra – Inferior articular processes meet superior articular processes resists twisting of vertebral column gap between, intervertebral foramen – allows for passage of spinal nerves 93

94. Lumbar Vertebra (Figure 6.20a) 94

95. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae – Smallest vertebrae – C1, Atlas ring surrounding large vertebral foramen supports head has superior articular facets – meet occipital condyles of skull – rock back and forth when nodding 95

96. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae (cont) – C2, Axis allows rotation of head prominent knob, dens or odontoid process – projects into vertebral foramen of atlas first vertebra with spinous process 96

97. The Atlas and Axis, Vertebrae C1 and C2 (Figure 6.21)

98. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae (cont) – C2 to C6 spinous process forked – C1 to C7 round transverse foramen in transverse process – provide passage for vertebral arteries and veins 98

99. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Thoracic vertebrae – Support ribs have depressions for rib attachment costal facets, on bodies of vertebrae transverse costal facets at ends of transverse processes – Pointed spinous processes angled downward 99

100. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Lumbar vertebrae – Thick body – Squarish spinous process – Superior articular processes facing medially – Inferior processes facing laterally enables region to resist twisting 100

101. Typical Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (Figure 6.22) 101

102. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Sacral vertebrae – Fully fused into sacrum by age 26 – Form posterior wall of pelvic cavity – Four pairs of sacral foramina for emergence of spinal nerves – Median sacral crest fused spinous processes of vertebrae 102

103. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Sacral vertebrae (cont) – Lateral sacral crest fused transverse processes – Sacroiliac (SI) joint where sacrum articulates with hip bones – Sacral canal contains spinal nerve roots 103

104. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Coccygeal vertebrae – Fuse into small single bone, coccyx – Provide attachment for pelvic floor muscles – Vestige of tail bones in other animals 104

105. The Sacrum and Coccyx (Figure 6.23) 105

106. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Intervertebral discs – Bind adjacent vertebrae together – Enhance spinal flexibility – Support weight of body – Absorb shock 106

107. The Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column Intervertebral discs (cont) – Consist of inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus outer fibrocartilage, anulus fibrosus – if pulposus oozes out, termed herniated disc 107

108. The Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage Thoracic cage – Thoracic vertebrae, sternum, and ribs – Encloses heart and lungs – Provides attachment for pectoral girdle and upper limbs – Protects thoracic organs, spleen, part of liver, and kidneys – Rhythmically expanded by respiratory muscles 108

109. The Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage Sternum – Bony plate anterior to heart – Short superior manubrium articulation site of 1 st pair of ribs clavicles articulating with clavicular notches here 109

110. The Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage Sternum (cont) – Swordlike body articulation site of second pair of ribs – Daggerlike xiphoid process at inferior end articulation site of remaining ribs 110

111. The Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage Ribs – 12 pairs – Attach posteriorly to vertebral column – All but last two attaching to sternum – Most curved, flattened blades 111

112. The Axial Skeleton: The Thoracic Cage Types of ribs – Ribs 1 to 7, true ribs each with own costal cartilage cartilaginous strip attaching to sternum – Ribs 8 to 12, false ribs 8 to10 attach to costal cartilage of rib 7 11 to 12 with no costal cartilages – Ribs 11 to 12, floating ribs lack any connection to sternum 112

113. Thoracic Cage and Pectoral Girdle, Anterior View (Figure 6.24) 113

114. The Axial Skeleton Cranial, facial, cranial, facial Are the following bones cranial or facial bones: parietal, zygomatic, sphenoid, and lacrimal bones? 114

115. The Appendicular Skeleton Learning Outcomes: a. Describe the bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb, and the major features of the individual bones. b. Do the same for the bones of the pelvic girdle and lower limb. 115

116. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Pectoral girdle – Supports the arm – Consists of clavicle and scapula on both sides 116

117. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Clavicle – S-shaped bone – Medial sternal end with hammerlike head articulates with manubrium – Lateral flattened acromial end articulations with acromion of scapula – Braces the shoulders 117

118. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Scapula – Triangular plate overlying 2 to 7 ribs on upper back – Superior, medial, and lateral borders – Subscapular fossa broad anterior surface – Spine prominent transverse ridge on posterior surface 118

119. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Scapula (cont) – Supraspinous fossa indentation superior to spine – Infraspinous fossa surface inferior to spine both fossa occupied by rotator cuff muscles 119

120. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Shoulder region of scapula – Acromion extension of scapular spine articulates with clavicle – Coracoid process shaped like bent finger provides attachment for biceps and other arm muscles – Glenoid cavity shallow socket articulates with head of humerus 120

121. The Right Scapula (Figure 6.26) 121

122. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Bones in the upper limbs – Humerus in the arum – Radius and ulna in the forearm – 8 carpal bones in the wrist – 5 metacarpal bones in the hand – 14 phalanges in the hand 122

123. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Humerus – Only bone from shoulder to elbow – Hemispherical head inserts into glenoid cavity of scapula – Greater and lesser tubercles sites of muscle attachments lateral to head intertubercular groove between for tendon of biceps 123

124. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Humerus (cont) – Deltoid tuberosity rough area on lateral shaft insertion for deltoid muscle – Capitulum and trochlea two condyles on distal end capitulum on lateral side pulleylike trochlea on medial side 124

125. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Humerus (cont) – Lateral and medial epicondyles bony prominences proximal to condyles – Olecranon fossa distal fossa on posterior side for ulna when elbow extended 125

126. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Humerus (cont) – Coronoid fossa distal fossa on anterior side for ulna head when elbow flexed – Radial fossa distal fossa on lateral side for radius head when elbow flexed 126

127. The Right Humerus (Figure 6.27)

128. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Radius – Extends from elbow to wrist laterally – Ends just proximal to base of thumb – Proximal head rotates on capitulum when palm forward and back 128

129. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Radius (cont) – Radial tuberosity process just distal to head attachment for tendon of biceps muscle – Flared distal end articulates with three carpal bones small point, styloid process 129

130. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Ulna – Medial bone of the forearm – Proximal end with C-shaped trochlear notch wraps around trochlea of humerus posterior wall formed by bony point, olecranon anterior wall formed by coronoid process – Radial notch for head of radius on medial head 130

131. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Ulna (cont) – Styloid process point on distal medial end – Interosseous membrane loosely joins radius and ulna helps with weight distribution across elbow 131

132. The Right Radius and Ulna (Figure 6.28) 132

133. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Carpal bones – In the base of the hand – Arranged in two rows of four bones – Allow movements of hand from side to side anterior to posterior 133

134. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Carpal bones (cont) – Proximal row starting laterally scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform – Distal row starting laterally trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate hamate with prominent hook on palmar side 134

135. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Metacarpal bones – Occupy palmar region – Numbered I through V metacarpal I at base of thumb metacarpal V at base of little finger – Divided into a base, body, and head head forming knuckles 135

136. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Phalanges – Bones of the fingers – Each with a base, body, and head – Identified by metacarpal number proximal, middle, or distal 136

137. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Phalanges (cont) – Digits II through IV have three bones – Digit I, pollex only proximal and distal bones 137

138. The Right Hand (Figure 6.29a) 138

139. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Pelvic girdle – Right and left hip bones and sacrum – Sacroiliac joint where hip bones joined to sacrum – Pubic symphysis where hip bones joined to each other just superior to genitalia median pad of fibrocartilage, interpubic disc 139

140. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Regions of pelvis – Pelvis, girdle plus muscles and ligaments – Greater (false) pelvis superior region between flare of hips contains and supports lower intestines – Pelvic inlet opening leading to lesser (true) pelvis 140

141. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Regions of pelvis (cont) – Lesser (true) pelvis narrower inferior space contains rectum, urinary bladder, and uterus – Pelvic brim edge of pelvic inlet – Pelvic outlet lower opening of lesser pelvis 141

142. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Sexual dimorphism of pelvis – Male pelvis heavier and thicker – Female pelvis adapted to needs of pregnancy and childbirth wider, shallower larger, rounder pelvic inlet and outlet for infant passage 142

143. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Hip bone – Formed by fusion of three childhood bones ilium, ischium, and pubis – Acetabulum deep socket for head of femur 143

144. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Ilium – Largest hip bone – Iliac crest, upper margin of ilium – Greater sciatic notch notch for sciatic nerve – Iliac fossa, anteromedial surface 144

145. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Ischium – Inferoposterior part of hip bone – C-shaped bone – Most of posterior wall of acetabulum – Ischial tuberosity lowermost part 145

146. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Pubis – Most anterior part of hip bone – Anterior part of acetabulum – Pubic symphysis where anterior pubic bones jointed by interpubic disc – Obturator foramen encircled by ischium and pubis large hole below acetabulum 146

147. The Pelvic Girdle (Figure 6.30a) 147

148. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Bones of lower limb – Femur in thigh, patella (kneecap) – Tibia and fibula in leg – 7 tarsal bones in ankle – 5 metatarsal bones in foot – 14 phalanges in foot – Adapted for weight bearing and locomotion 148

149. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Femur – Longest and strongest bone in body – Hemispherical head inserting into acetabulum – Constricted neck distal to head – Greater and lesser trochanters processes of upper femur insertions for hip muscles 149

150. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Femur (cont) – Linea aspera ridge on posterior surface attachment side for adductor muscles of thigh – Medial and lateral epicondyles on distal end of femur sites of muscle and ligament attachment 150

151. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Femur (cont) – Medial and lateral condyles surfaces of knee joint – Patellar surface on anterior femur depression for patella 151

152. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Patella (kneecap) – Roughly triangular bone – Cartilaginous at birth ossifies between ages 3 to 6 – Broad superior base 152

153. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Patella (kneecap) (cont) – Pointed inferior apex – Shallow articular facets on posterior surface where articulates with femur glides on patellar surface when knee flexed and extended 153

154. The Right Femur and Patella (Figure 6.31) 154

155. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Tibia – On medial side of leg (between knee and ankle) – Thick, strong bone – Only weight-bearing bone of region – Medial and lateral condyles flat surfaces on superior head meet condyles of femur 155

156. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Tibia (cont) – Tibial tuberosity anterior surface of tibia just below patella where patellar ligament inserts – Anterior border sharply angular – Medial malleolus medial knob of tibia 156

157. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Fibula – Slender lateral strut – Helps stabilize the ankle – Broader at proximal end, the head – Lateral malleolus knob and distal end of fibula – Connected to tibia through interosseous membrane 157

158. The Right Tibia and Fibula (Figure 6.32) 158

159. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Tarsal bones – Arranged in proximal and distal groups – Integrated into arches of the foot – Proximal group calcaneus of heel talus, articulates with tibia navicular bone anterior to talus 159

160. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Tarsal bones (cont) – Distal group medial to lateral first, second, and third cuneiforms cuboid, the largest Metatarsal bones – Numbered I to V from medial to lateral – I proximal to great toe 160

161. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Phalanges – Bones of the toes – 1 st toe, hallux contains only proximal and distal phalanges – Other toes with proximal, middle, and distal phalanges 161

162. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Arches of foot – Absorb shock and body jostles – Medial longitudinal arch extends from heel to great toe – Lateral longitudinal arch extends from heel to little toe 162

163. The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Arches of foot (cont) – Transverse arch extends from side to side – Arches held together by short ligaments can be weakened or stretched causing fallen arches 163

164. The Right Foot (Figure 6.33a-b) 164

165. The Appendicular Skeleton The sacrum and two hip bones What are the bones of the pelvic girdle? Which three bones fuse to form the hip bone? What opening divides the greater and lesser pelvis? Ilium, ischium, pubis Pelvic inlet 165