1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Chapter 9A Process Capability and SPC

3. Process Variation Process Capability Process Control Procedures – Variable data – Attribute data Acceptance Sampling – Operating Characteristic Curve OBJECTIVES 9A-3

4. Basic Forms of Variation Assignable variation is caused by factors that can be clearly identified and possibly managed Common variation is inherent in the production process Example: A poorly trained employee that creates variation in finished product output. Example: A molding process that always leaves “burrs” or flaws on a molded item. 9A-4

5. Taguchi’s View of Variation Incremental Cost of Variability High Zero Lower Spec Target Spec Upper Spec Traditional View Incremental Cost of Variability High Zero Lower Spec Target Spec Upper Spec Taguchi’s View Traditional view is that quality within the LS and US is good and that the cost of quality outside this range is constant, where Taguchi views costs as increasing as variability increases, so seek to achieve zero defects and that will truly minimize quality costs. 9A-5

6. Process Capability Index, C pk Shifts in Process Mean Capability Index shows how well parts being produced fit into design limit specifications. As a production process produces items small shifts in equipment or systems can cause differences in production performance from differing samples. 9A-6

7. A simple ratio: Specification Width _________________________________________________________ Actual “Process Width” Generally, the bigger the better. Process Capability – A Standard Measure of How Good a Process Is. 9A-7

8. Process Capability This is a “one-sided” Capability Index Concentration on the side which is closest to the specification - closest to being “bad” 9A-8

9. The Cereal Box Example We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer reports has just published an article that shows that we frequently have less than 16 ounces of cereal in a box. Let’s assume that the government says that we must be within ± 5 percent of the weight advertised on the box. Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 +.05(16) = 16.8 ounces Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 –.05(16) = 15.2 ounces We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find that they weight an average of 15.875 ounces with a standard deviation of.529 ounces. 9A-9

10. Cereal Box Process Capability Specification or Tolerance Limits –Upper Spec = 16.8 oz –Lower Spec = 15.2 oz Observed Weight –Mean = 15.875 oz –Std Dev =.529 oz 9A-10

11. What does a C pk of.4253 mean? An index that shows how well the units being produced fit within the specification limits. This is a process that will produce a relatively high number of defects. Many companies look for a C pk of 1.3 or better… 6-Sigma company wants 2.0! 9A-11

12. Types of Statistical Sampling Attribute (Go or no-go information) – Defectives refers to the acceptability of product across a range of characteristics. – Defects refers to the number of defects per unit which may be higher than the number of defectives. – p-chart application Variable (Continuous) – Usually measured by the mean and the standard deviation. – X-bar and R chart applications 9A-12

13. Statistical Process Control (SPC) Charts UCL LCL Samples over time 1 2 3 4 5 6 UCL LCL Samples over time 1 2 3 4 5 6 UCL LCL Samples over time 1 2 3 4 5 6 Normal Behavior Possible problem, investigate 9A-13

14. Control Limits are based on the Normal Curve x 0123-3-2 z  Standard deviation units or “z” units. 9A-14

15. Control Limits We establish the Upper Control Limits (UCL) and the Lower Control Limits (LCL) with plus or minus 3 standard deviations from some x-bar or mean value. Based on this we can expect 99.7% of our sample observations to fall within these limits. x LCLUCL 99.7% 9A-15

16. Example of Constructing a p-Chart: Required Data Sample No. No. of Samples Number of defects found in each sample 9A-16

17. Statistical Process Control Formulas: Attribute Measurements (p-Chart) Given: Compute control limits: 9A-17

18. 1. Calculate the sample proportions, p (these are what can be plotted on the p-chart) for each sample Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 1 9A-18

19. 2. Calculate the average of the sample proportions 3. Calculate the standard deviation of the sample proportion Example of Constructing a p-chart: Steps 2&3 9A-19

20. 4. Calculate the control limits UCL = 0.0924 LCL = -0.0204 (or 0) UCL = 0.0924 LCL = -0.0204 (or 0) Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 4 9A-20

21. Example of Constructing a p-Chart: Step 5 UCL LCL 5. Plot the individual sample proportions, the average of the proportions, and the control limits 5. Plot the individual sample proportions, the average of the proportions, and the control limits 9A-21

22. Example of x-bar and R Charts: Required Data 9A-22

23. Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 1. Calculate sample means, sample ranges, mean of means, and mean of ranges. 9A-23

24. Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 2. Determine Control Limit Formulas and Necessary Tabled Values From Exhibit TN8.7 9A-24

25. Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 3&4. Calculate x-bar Chart and Plot Values UCL LCL 9A-25

26. Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 5&6. Calculate R-chart and Plot Values UCL LCL 9A-26

27. Basic Forms of Statistical Sampling for Quality Control Acceptance Sampling is sampling to accept or reject the immediate lot of product at hand Statistical Process Control is sampling to determine if the process is within acceptable limits 9A-27

28. Acceptance Sampling Purposes – Determine quality level – Ensure quality is within predetermined level Advantages – Economy – Less handling damage – Fewer inspectors – Upgrading of the inspection job – Applicability to destructive testing – Entire lot rejection (motivation for improvement) 9A-28

29. Acceptance Sampling (Continued) Disadvantages – Risks of accepting “bad” lots and rejecting “good” lots – Added planning and documentation – Sample provides less information than 100-percent inspection 9A-29

30. Acceptance Sampling: Single Sampling Plan A simple goal Determine (1) how many units, n, to sample from a lot, and (2) the maximum number of defective items, c, that can be found in the sample before the lot is rejected 9A-30

31. Risk Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) – Max. acceptable percentage of defectives defined by producer The  (Producer’s risk) – The probability of rejecting a good lot Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD) – Percentage of defectives that defines consumer’s rejection point The  (Consumer’s risk) – The probability of accepting a bad lot 9A-31

32. Operating Characteristic Curve n = 99 c = 4 AQLLTPD 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 123456789101112 Percent defective Probability of acceptance  =.10 (consumer’s risk)  =.05 (producer’s risk) The OCC brings the concepts of producer’s risk, consumer’s risk, sample size, and maximum defects allowed together The shape or slope of the curve is dependent on a particular combination of the four parameters 9A-32

33. Example: Acceptance Sampling Problem Zypercom, a manufacturer of video interfaces, purchases printed wiring boards from an outside vender, Procard. Procard has set an acceptable quality level of 1% and accepts a 5% risk of rejecting lots at or below this level. Zypercom considers lots with 3% defectives to be unacceptable and will assume a 10% risk of accepting a defective lot. Develop a sampling plan for Zypercom and determine a rule to be followed by the receiving inspection personnel. Zypercom, a manufacturer of video interfaces, purchases printed wiring boards from an outside vender, Procard. Procard has set an acceptable quality level of 1% and accepts a 5% risk of rejecting lots at or below this level. Zypercom considers lots with 3% defectives to be unacceptable and will assume a 10% risk of accepting a defective lot. Develop a sampling plan for Zypercom and determine a rule to be followed by the receiving inspection personnel. 9A-33

34. Example: Step 1. What is given and what is not? In this problem, AQL is given to be 0.01 and LTDP is given to be 0.03. We are also given an alpha of 0.05 and a beta of 0.10. What you need to determine is your sampling plan is “c” and “n.” 9A-34

35. Example: Step 2. Determine “c” First divide LTPD by AQL. Then find the value for “c” by selecting the value in the TN7.10 “n(AQL)”column that is equal to or just greater than the ratio above. Exhibit TN 8.10 cLTPD/AQLn AQLcLTPD/AQLn AQL 044.8900.05253.5492.613 110.9460.35563.2063.286 26.5090.81872.9573.981 34.8901.36682.7684.695 44.0571.97092.6185.426 So, c = 6. 9A-35

36. Question Bowl A methodology that is used to show how well parts being produced fit into a range specified by design limits is which of the following? a.Capability index b.Producer’s risk c.Consumer’s risk d.AQL e.None of the above Answer: a. Capability index 9A-36

37. Question Bowl On a quality control chart if one of the values plotted falls outside a boundary it should signal to the production manager to do which of the following? a.System is out of control, should be stopped and fixed b.System is out of control, but can still be operated without any concern c.System is only out of control if the number of observations falling outside the boundary exceeds statistical expectations d.System is OK as is e.None of the above Answer: c. System is only out of control if the number of observations falling outside the boundary exceeds statistical expectations 9A-37

38. Question Bowl You want to prepare a p chart and you observe 200 samples with 10 in each, and find 5 defective units. What is the resulting “fraction defective”? a.25 b.2.5 c.0.0025 d.0.00025 e.Can not be computed on data above Answer: c. 0.0025 (5/(2000x10)=0.0025) 9A-38

39. Question Bowl You want to prepare an x-bar chart. If the number of observations in a “subgroup” is 10, what is the appropriate “factor” used in the computation of the UCL and LCL? a.1.88 b.0.31 c.0.22 d.1.78 e.None of the above Answer: b. 0.31 9A-39

40. Question Bowl You want to prepare an R chart. If the number of observations in a “subgroup” is 5, what is the appropriate “factor” used in the computation of the LCL? a.0 b.0.88 c.1.88 d.2.11 e.None of the above Answer: a. 0 9A-40

41. Question Bowl You want to prepare an R chart. If the number of observations in a “subgroup” is 3, what is the appropriate “factor” used in the computation of the UCL? a.0.87 b.1.00 c.1.88 d.2.11 e.None of the above Answer: e. None of the above 9A-41

42. Question Bowl The maximum number of defectives that can be found in a sample before the lot is rejected is denoted in acceptance sampling as which of the following? a.Alpha b.Beta c.AQL d. c e.None of the above Answer: d. c 9A-42

43. 1-43 End of Chapter 9A 9A-43