1. Constructing an Argument Definitions Distinctions Conceptual Analyses Thought Experiments

2. Definitions When should you define a term? – Technical term being used in a technical sense. – Where there are multiple interpretations of a term, and it is being used in one of those senses. – A term you have invented.

3. Distinctions A proper distinction is exhaustive and mutually exclusive. – Exhaustive: Everything is in some category. – Mutually exclusive: Nothing is in more than one category.

4. Jose Luis Borges In an obscure Chinese encyclopedia, the following distinctions are made between animals: (a) those that belong to the emperor, (b) embalmed ones, (c) those that are trained, (d) suckling pigs, (e) mermaids, (f) fabulous ones, (g) stray dogs, (h) those that are included in this classification, (i) those that tremble as if they were mad, (j) innumerable ones, (k) those that are drawn with a very fine camel’s hair brush, (l) others, (m) those that have just broken a flower vase, (n) those that resemble flies from a distance.

5. Conceptual Analysis Providing a set of individually necessary and jointly sufficient conditions e.g. “X is dead if and only if: – 1. X has lost bodily function – 2. X has irreversibly lost consciousness”

6. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions “X is necessary for Y” means: – Y cannot be the case unless X is the case. “X is sufficient for Y” means: – If X is the case, then Y must also be the case. “In order to access the library, you must have a library card.” “People with a billion pounds are rich.”

7. Assessing Conceptual Analyses An analysis is too strong if it excludes things it should include. – At least one condition is not necessary. An analysis is too weak if it includes things it should exclude. – The conditions are not jointly sufficient. An analysis can be both too strong and too weak.

8. The Chinese Room

9. Thought Experiments 1.Make it clear and easy to visualise. 2.Ensure the person is in the right place within the scenario.