1. 1 Part III. Performing the Research Objective: To identify and understand the main techniques used in executing a research project Lecture Summary: 3 Initial Research 4 Research Approaches 5 Hypotheses 6 Data Collection 7 Data Analysis

2. 2 3 Initial Research Initial research is undertaken to provide the foundations for all work that follows in the project It provides a means for either: –establishing the Aim, Objectives, and Hypotheses, or –confirming the topic for study. It is essential to determine: –what has been researched –what are considered to be the unresolved issues or emerging issues It helps you to: –ensure that you are not reinventing the wheel –avoid mistakes that other researchers have made –focus on what is most likely to be productive Requires a certain amount of knowledge in the area Requires a degree of creativity in coming-up with a topic.

3. 3 Initial research involves searching: Existing theory: –the foundation of the subject area –often found in text books Previous studies: –the forefront of the development of the subject area: may not be widely accepted (but this does not mean it should be ignored) may even be controversial often found in research journals or research reports The initial research will often help to identify: Accepted/traditional methodologies, which may be adopted to make the research –more palatable to the readers –more readily understood –tailor/fit into existing results more cleanly

4. 4 Theory and Literature Search: These are the results of previous studies: –the theory is the established principles –literature reports research findings that have not yet attained ‘theory’ status The literature search precedes the literature review (see later) The items of theory and major references are determined from –supervisor, and other experts in the field –often published in books, monographs, and will often include “classic” research papers (papers that were ground breaking research in their time, but have become recognized as foundational works)

5. 5 The relevant literature is determined from: –research journals, research reports, conference proceedings –this category of work takes the most effort to find since: the precise set of articles you are looking for is unique to your research problem some articles may be obscure, and not widely recognized (you may help add to its recognition) You must be thorough in finding everything that is relevant, even if it is published in a foreign language The literature search is an iterative one, and will often be refined as the research project progresses: –as new concepts are identified, and –to compare your findings with that of other research

6. 6 Computer search: library, e-Journals web sites. titles authors keywords Retrospective Literature Search references refer- ences titles refer- ences authors keywords Retrieval rate reduces after several iterations Retrieved articles get older and thus less relevant. Once found some articles, check the references for similar articles. Repeat the process using references, as well as authors, titles, keywords.

7. 7 Citations Index Search Articles retrieved from retrospective literature search Articles become more recent as the search progresses. Best strategy is to mix both retrospective and citations search. Look up articles in citations indices. This will provide you with a list of articles that refer to your found articles.

8. 8 Citations indices are available from: the library (best to use the online versions) Internet: –a popular example is the ISI Web of Knowledge: http://isi6.isiknowledge.com/ A search also requires you to scan articles for relevance, so you need: to identify the full reference (title, authors, journal, publisher, year, pages, etc…) for future citation, and access to the article (at least the abstract)

9. 9 Can do most search work on a computer nowadays: Use the University’s online library facilities Beware of using sources such as Google Scholar and Wikipedia: –they can be an excellent starting point however! –but remember, they are not complete nor well validated Some websites are recognized scholarly sources of information: –Eg: ISI Web of Knowledge for citations –but remember, they will tend to cover fewer journals and proceedings than the library Many journals are available online nowadays, and the abstracts (or even the full articles) maybe freely accessible –In other cases, the University library may have paid a subscription to permit you to download the article –Otherwise, if hardcopy is not available in the library, it will have to be ordered

10. 10 Literature Review: As relevant articles and research reports are retrieved, they must be read, or at least briefly scanned, to check their content: –Use a filing system to record the reference, and keywords and concepts of relevance to your study –This can be done using an Excel spreadsheet so that you can sort the references as needed. As the search process progresses, you will start to perceive patterns, meanings, and ideas in the collective body of information: –It is a good idea to keep brief notes on these ideas as you progress, for future reference (even if they turn out misconceived) –These can provide you with starting points in your literature review

11. 11 When the search appears to be largely complete, then it is time to start authoring the review: The review should NOT be a set of descriptions of each article (NOT a set of abstracts) The review should synthesizes the collective body of literature into a set of descriptions that: –Identify the current state of knowledge of the subject: What are the currently accepted theoretical frameworks and ideas? What are the emerging theoretical frameworks or ideas? Any controversies in the existing theoretical frameworks or ideas? Any contradictions between existing theoretical frameworks or ideas? What are the open questions and opinions yet to be tested in depth What work is currently underway? What is not understood?

12. 12 –Identify any proposed/emerging new paradigms and their acceptance and controversies –Identify potential future directions for development of the discipline

13. 13 The review should be critical: –This shows that you have viewed the work with insight However, be balanced – do not be biased in favor of some idea you have or topic that you want to follow –It is ok to include your thoughts on the published work: But make sure you are clear as to what are your ideas and those of others (avoid accusations of plagiarism)

14. 14 The review should reference all sources of information: –For example, you may use the Harvard System of referencing: Author and year in parentheses at the point of reference in the text Eg: bla bla bla (Flood, 2003) bla bla. Full reference in alphabetic order in an appendix Eg: Flood, I, (2003), “How to Write Literature Reviews”, in Journal of Everything, 3(1), Big Press Co, New York, pp 15- 55. Check online for detailed descriptions of the Harvard system –Do not discuss any work without including a reference so the reader can go back to the source of information, and to prevent accusations of plagiarism –Always cite the original source(s) of information: Do not cite a source that cites the source (as can compound errors in understanding)

15. 15 The review should flow cleanly, and not jump backwards and forwards between ideas and arguments: –Maintain a logical thread to the discussion –Make it clear when you move to a different concept You can use subheadings and paragraphs to help achieve this Introduce each new topic in a sentence or two so that the focus is not left to “come out in the wash”. –There should be introductory paragraphs for each general topic –There should be concluding paragraphs for each general topic, or at least for the complete review A concluding paragraph should pull together succinctly, the main conclusions (it should not be a summary of the review) Remember: the literature review at this stage provides the foundation for your research: –It should provide the basis for the Aim and Objectives of your study –It may even provide the basis for your methodology and hypotheses.