1. Professional and Business Ethics in Health Care
dr. Nur Azid Mahardinata
Center for Bioethics and Medical Humanities
Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada

2. HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN THIS PHENOMENA?
Background
Medical professional is facing a decreasing professionalism and increasing ethical problems around the globe
Charles Dougherty:
“General features of the pervasive hold of commercialism in medicine include an increase in competition and decline in professionalism among physicians, a view of health care as commodity and patients as consumers, and a general depersonalization of doctor-patient relationship including dilution of the tradition of physician as patient advocate”
HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN THIS PHENOMENA?

3. FIRST: The Theory of Market
Developed by Adam Smith:
Economic man, self-interested, and fundamentally asocial, motivated by an insatiable desire to improve his material condition, is the model that explains human motivation and action
The special characteristics of healthcare market is both Private as well as Social/Public domain
Therefore, health care business is unique. It must balance the obligation to care for others with the necessity of making a profit as a business.

4. Pharmaceutical Industry
Patient Care
Profit Making
Hospital
Pharmaceutical Industry
Physician
Government
Patient and Families

5. What is profitable to Businesses in the Healthcare industry:
Selling Medicine/Drugs
Selling Medical Supplies
Hospital equipment
Lab equipment
Selling Medical Services
Patient care
Nursing home care
Home care
New Health Care Technology

6. Market Driven Care Advantage Disadvantage Incentive for innovation
Incentive for efficiency
Less government intervention
Alienate physicians
Undermine patient trust of physicians
Hurt academic medical centers and the research establishment
More patients without health care coverage.

7. Public Cost of Poor Health
Higher disease burden
Longer time to recover from sickness
Shorter time to work (become productive – economically and socially)
Lower life expectancy

8. What is not as directly profitable is: Prevention “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”
But companies can’t make much money from preventing diseases Therefore, healthcare should be managed by the “people” and “for the people”

9. How Market Driven Healthcare Cuts Costs
recruit the healthiest patients
excluding the sickest
rationing care by making it inconvenient to obtain
denying care by a variety of mechanisms.

10. Physicians’ Dilemma in Market Driven Healthcare
As Caregiver:
provide a wide range of services, recommend the best treatments
improve patients' quality of life
As Efficiently keeping expenses to a minimum:
limit the use of services
increase efficiency
shorten the time spent with each patient
use specialists sparingly

11. Managed healthcare plans Good of Patient vs …..
(1) the good of all the other patients served by the plan
(2) the good of the plan and the organization themselves
(3) the self-interest of the physician.
from Edmund Pellegrino

12. Second: Stakeholder Theory:
Who are the Stakeholders for a Healthcare Organization?

13. From Pat Werhane: “Business Ethics, Stakeholder Theory, and the Ethics of Healthcare in Organizations”

14. The Investor: Pharmaceutical Industries
The pharmaceutical industry in 2006 was worth US$ 643 billion.
Total pharmaceutical sales from the top 10 companies accounted for more than 40% of the total market (see table).

15. Pharmaceutical Industry as Investors
Irrational Use of Drugs
In 2005, the Indian National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health labeled 10 out of 25 top selling brands of medicines in the country as being either “irrational or non-essential or hazardous.”

16. Pharmaceutical Industry as Investors
Questionable New Drugs
A survey in April 2005 by the French journal La Revue Prescribe concluded that 68 per cent of the 3,096 new products approved in France between 1981 and 2004 brought “nothing new” to existing treatments.
A breakdown of more than 1,000 new drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration between 1989 and 2000 revealed that more than three-quarters had no therapeutic benefit over existing products.

17. Pharmaceutical Industry as Investors
Advertising with Incomplete Information
2005 study of Psychobiology of the Paulista Medical School of the Federal University of São Paulo Brazil
Analysed 24 Brazilian advertisements for the same psychoactive drugs as advertised in American and/or British publications from the same period.
Observed that “Brazilian advertisements omitted information on usage restrictions, such as contraindications, adverse reactions, interactions, warnings and precautions, and that such information was present in American and British advertisements.”

18. How They Do It? --- Drug Promotion is the Key
Increasing the perceived frequency and/or severity of the indications.
2. Widening the indications to include more people.
3. Increasing the perceived likelihood and magnitude of benefits.
4. Decreasing the perceived likelihood and magnitude of harms.
5. Increasing the use of the drug for longer durations.

19. Pharmaceutical Gifts in Pakistan
• Low cost: pens/pads/diaries/calendars.
Medium cost: stethoscope/books/briefcases.
High cost: air conditioners/laptops/desktop
computers/club membership.
The latest practice is: For writing 200 prescriptions of the company’s high priced drug, a doctor is rewarded with the down payment on a brand new car.
What about in Indonesia??

20. Doctors’ Biased Behavior
Evidence shows that biased doctors are more likely to:
Prescribe a drug if they had recently attended a sponsored event by the manufacturer.
Prescribe a drug that is not clinically indicated.
Have a drug placed on a hospital formulary.

21. *Governments’ Key Recommendations:
Implement, improve and monitor legislation in line with the WHO Resolution on the Rational Use of Medicines and the WHO Ethical Criteria for Medicinal Drug Promotion.
Support the provision of independent information on drugs for consumers and health professionals.
Implement and enforce a ban on gifts to doctors.
Enforce strict sanctions that will deter poor corporate practice in drug promotion.
Take measures to improve the transparency of drug companies’ marketing activities and seriously address the conflict of interest encountered in drug companies’ funding of medical education.

22. **Key Recommendations at the Company Level:
1. Stop the practice of gifts to doctors
2. Implement rigorous policies on vetting of drug
promotion materials and adherence to existing codes
of conduct
3. Provide transparent and verifiable information
on the precise nature of relationships and associated
funding for all stakeholder groups, including health
professionals, pharmacists, students, journalists,
clinical research organizations and patient groups.

23. **Industry-Wide Level:
1. Ensure codes of conduct on drug promotion
extend to interactions with health professionals AND
consumers.
2. Invest in innovative partnerships with
government and civil society organizations so
that corporate funding of disease awareness
campaigns, and CME may be channeled via blind
trusts in line with specific health priorities of
consumers at a community or national level.

24. Bibliography
Drugs, Doctors and Dinners: How drug companies influence health in the developing world
Managed Care and the Morality of the Marketplace (NEJM, 333:50-52, 7/6, 1995)

25. How to maintain the humanitarian aspects of health care?
Professionalism and ethics are the key to maintain humanitarian aspects of health care

26. How to Execute Ethical Principles in an Organization?
Organizational Goals Approach
The Stakeholder Analysis Approach
Ethical Justifiable Decision

27. Organizational Goals Approach
Institutional mission statements are commonly expressed the development and implementation of organizational goals
An ethical analysis of organization behavior can be conceived as a means of ensuring that an appropriate mission statement is adopted, kept up date, and put into effect
The J&J case (1982) – “a 350 words credo”
“First, responsibility of the company is to healthcare professionals and customers who use its products”

28. Useless mission statement:
“To improve the total health of our communities, working in partnership with the people we serve”
A hospital has ethical responsibilities deriving from its organizational roles as employer and business entity
Institution
Its physician
Other care givers
Employers
Individual patients and families
Community as a whole

29. The Woodstock Ethical Framework
Compassion and respect for human dignity
Commitment to professional competence
Commitment to a spirit of service
Honesty
Confidentiality
Good stewardship and careful administration

30. Model Hospital Mission Statement (1)
It is the goal and mission of general hospital to:
Offer care to all without regard to race, religion, or ethnic identity and to the extent that resources permit, irrespective of the ability to pay
Offer health and wellness programs and health education to the people of our service area
Provide the best available medical care to our patients honoring their rights to determine the course their treatment

31. Model Hospital Mission Statement (2)
Employ open and ethical business practices in our dealings with patients, professional associates, allied service providers and business partners
Provide a fulfilling place of employment to our professional staff and employees including appropriate compensation, healthful working conditions, and opportunities for education and advancement
Use the resources provided by benefactors, foundations, and public entities as efficiently as possible in the pursuit of these goals

32. Stakeholder Analysis
“Any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the corporation” (Evan and Freeman, 1988:100)
Primary stakeholders: groups whose continued participation is necessary to the survival of the organization (e.g. shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, creditors, and governments)
Secondary stakeholders: groups whose participation is not essential to the organization, although they are affected by organizational activities (e.g. media, community, and other business)

33. Remember the Formula Organizational Goals Approach
The Stakeholder Analysis Approach
Ethical Justifiable Decision

34. Thank You for your kind attention