1. Recurrences (in color) It continues…

2. Recurrences When an algorithm calls itself recursively, its running time is described by a recurrence. When an algorithm calls itself recursively, its running time is described by a recurrence. A recurrence describes itself in terms of its value on smaller inputs A recurrence describes itself in terms of its value on smaller inputs There are three methods of solving these: substitution, recursion tree, or master method There are three methods of solving these: substitution, recursion tree, or master method

3. What it looks like This is the recurrence of M ERGE -S ORT This is the recurrence of M ERGE -S ORT What this says is that the time involved is 1 if n = 1, What this says is that the time involved is 1 if n = 1, Else, the time involved is 2 times half the size of the array, plus n time to merge sorted sub-arrays Else, the time involved is 2 times half the size of the array, plus n time to merge sorted sub-arrays T(n) = { Θ (1) 2T(n/2) + Θ (n) if n = 1 if n > 1

4. Substitution Similar to induction Similar to induction Guess solution, and prove it holds true for next call Guess solution, and prove it holds true for next call Powerful method, but can sometimes be difficult to guess the solution! Powerful method, but can sometimes be difficult to guess the solution!

5. Substitution Example: Example: T (n) = 2T (n/2) + n T (n) = 2T (n/2) + n Guess that T (n) = O(n lg n) Guess that T (n) = O(n lg n) We must prove that T (n)  cn lg n, for an appropriate constant c > 0 We must prove that T (n)  cn lg n, for an appropriate constant c > 0 Assume it holds for n/2 as well Assume it holds for n/2 as well T (n/2) = c(n/2) lg (n/2) T (n)  2 (c(n/2) lg (n/2)) + n = cn lg (n/2)) + n = cn lg (n/2)) + n = cn (lg n – lg 2) + n = cn (lg n – lg 2) + n = cn lg n – cn + n = cn lg n – cn + n  cn lg n, for  c  1  cn lg n, for  c  1 Note:  means ‘for all’

6. Subtleties Let T (n) = T (n/2) + T(n/2) + 1 Let T (n) = T (n/2) + T(n/2) + 1 Assume that T (n) = O(n) Assume that T (n) = O(n) Then T (n/2) = c(n/2) Then T (n/2) = c(n/2) T (n)  c(n/2) + c(n/2) + 1 = cn + 1 (note there is an extra “1”!) = cn + 1 (note there is an extra “1”!) Which does not imply T (n)  cn Here, we’re correct, but off by a constant! Here, we’re correct, but off by a constant!

7. Subtleties We strengthen our guess: T (n)  cn – b We strengthen our guess: T (n)  cn – b T (n)  (c(n/2) – b) + (c(n/2) – b) + 1 = cn – 2b + 1 = cn – 2b + 1  cn – b, for  b > 1  cn – b, for  b > 1

8. One Last Example Original Equation: T (n) = 2T (  n) + lg n Let m = lg n, then T (2 m ) = 2T (2 m/2 ) + m Let S (m) = T (2 m ) S (m) = 2 S (m/2) + m We know S (m) = (m lg m), so T (n) = T (2 m ) = S (m) = O(m lg m) = O(lg n lg lg n)

9. Recursion Tree Method A recursion tree is built A recursion tree is built We sum up each level We sum up each level Total cost = number of levels * cost at each level Total cost = number of levels * cost at each level Usually used to generate a good guess for the substitution method Usually used to generate a good guess for the substitution method Could still be used as direct proof Could still be used as direct proof Example: T (n) = 3T (n/4) +  (n 2 ) Example: T (n) = 3T (n/4) +  (n 2 )

10. T(n)T(n)

11. cn 2 T(n/4)

12. cn 2 c(n/4) 2 T(n/16)

13. cn 2 c(n/4) 2 c(n/16) 2 T(1)

14. cn 2 c(n/4) 2 c(n/16) 2 T(1) cn 2 3/16 cn 2 (3/16) 2 cn 2  (n log 4 3 )

15. Questions How many levels does this tree have? How many levels does this tree have? The subproblem at depth i is n/4 i The subproblem at depth i is n/4 i When does the subproblem hit size 1 ? When does the subproblem hit size 1 ? n/4 i = 1 n/4 i = 1 n = 4 i n = 4 i lg 4 n = i lg 4 n = i Therefore, the tree has lg 4 n + 1 levels (0, 1, 2,… lg 4 n) Therefore, the tree has lg 4 n + 1 levels (0, 1, 2,… lg 4 n) There are 3 i nodes at each level There are 3 i nodes at each level The cost at each level is 3 i c(n/4 i ) 2 The cost at each level is 3 i c(n/4 i ) 2 The last level has 3 log 4 n nodes = n log 4 3 The last level has 3 log 4 n nodes = n log 4 3

16. The Master's Method When it has this form: T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) If f (n) = Ο(n log b a-ε ) for some constant ε>0, then T (n) = Θ (n log b a ) If f (n) = Ο(n log b a-ε ) for some constant ε>0, then T (n) = Θ (n log b a ) If f (n) = Θ(n log b a-ε ) for some constant ε>0, then T (n) = Θ (n log b a lgn) If f (n) = Θ(n log b a-ε ) for some constant ε>0, then T (n) = Θ (n log b a lgn) If f (n) = Ω (n log b a+ε ) for some constant ε>0, and if af(n/b) ≤ cf (n) for c 0, and if af(n/b) ≤ cf (n) for c < 1 and large n T (n) = Θ (f (n)) T (n) = Θ (f (n))

17. Example T(n) = 9T(n/3) + n T(n) = 9T(n/3) + n a = 9, b = 3, f(n)=n, thus n log b a = n log 3 9 = n 2 a = 9, b = 3, f(n)=n, thus n log b a = n log 3 9 = n 2 f(n)=n=O( n log 3 9- ε), where ε=1 f(n)=n=O( n log 3 9- ε), where ε=1 So we can apply case 1, thus T(n) = Θ ( n 2 ) So we can apply case 1, thus T(n) = Θ ( n 2 ) T(n) = T(2n/3) + 1 T(n) = T(2n/3) + 1 a = 1, b = 3/2, f(n)=1, thus n log b a = n log 3/2 1 = n 0 = 1 a = 1, b = 3/2, f(n)=1, thus n log b a = n log 3/2 1 = n 0 = 1 Case 2 applies, thus T(n) = Θ (lgn) Case 2 applies, thus T(n) = Θ (lgn)

18. Example … T(n) = 3 T(n/4) + nlgn T(n) = 3 T(n/4) + nlgn a = 3, b = 4, f (n) = nlgn a = 3, b = 4, f (n) = nlgn n log b a = n log 4 3 = O( n 0.793 ) n log b a = n log 4 3 = O( n 0.793 ) f (n) = Ω (n log 4 3+ε ) where ε ≈ 0.2 (solve for it) f (n) = Ω (n log 4 3+ε ) where ε ≈ 0.2 (solve for it) For large n, a f (n/b) = 3(n/4)lg(n/4) ≤ (3/4)nlgn = c f (n) for c = 3/4 For large n, a f (n/b) = 3(n/4)lg(n/4) ≤ (3/4)nlgn = c f (n) for c = 3/4 Case 3 applied Case 3 applied Then T (n) = Θ (nlgn)

19. When it doesn’t work... T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n lg n T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n lg n a = 2, b = 2, f(n) = n lg n a = 2, b = 2, f(n) = n lg n You would think that rule 3 should apply You would think that rule 3 should apply f(n) > n log b a f(n) > n log b a n lg n > n n lg n > n But f(n) is not polynomially larger! But f(n) is not polynomially larger! Because (n lg n)/n = lg n, which is asymptotically less than n . Because (n lg n)/n = lg n, which is asymptotically less than n .