2. A shock is a discontinuity separating two different regimes in a continuous media. –Shocks form when velocities exceed the signal speed in the medium. –A shock front separates the Mach cone of a supersonic jet from the undisturbed air. Characteristics of a shock : –The disturbance propagates faster than the signal speed. In gas the signal speed is the speed of sound, in space plasmas the signal speeds are the MHD wave speeds. –At the shock front the properties of the medium change abruptly. In a hydrodynamic shock, the pressure and density increase while in a MHD shock the plasma density and magnetic field strength increase. –Behind a shock front a transition back to the undisturbed medium must occur. Behind a gas-dynamic shock, density and pressure decrease, behind a MHD shock the plasma density and magnetic field strength decrease. If the decrease is fast a reverse shock occurs. A shock can be thought of as a non-linear wave propagating faster than the signal speed. –Information can be transferred by a propagating disturbance. –Shocks can be from a blast wave - waves generated in the corona. –Shocks can be driven by an object moving faster than the speed of sound.

3. Shocks can form when an obstacle moves with respect to the unshocked gas. Shocks can form when a gas encounters an obstacle.

4. The Shock’s Rest Frame –In a frame moving with the shock the gas with the larger speed is on the left and gas with a smaller speed is on the right. –At the shock front irreversible processes lead the the compression of the gas and a change in speed. –The low-entropy upstream side has high velocity. –The high-entropy downstream side has smaller velocity. Collisionless Shock Waves –In a gas-dynamic shock collisions provide the required dissipation. –In space plasmas the shocks are collision free.  Microscopic Kinetic effects provide the dissipation.  The magnetic field acts as a coupling device.  MHD can be used to show how the bulk parameters change across the shock. vuvu vdvd Shock Front Upstream (low entropy) Downstream (high entropy)

5. Shock Conservation Laws –In both fluid dynamics and MHD conservation equations for mass, energy and momentum have the form: where Q and are the density and flux of the conserved quantity. –If the shock is steady ( ) and one-dimensional or where u and d refer to upstream and downstream and is the unit normal to the shock surface. We normally write this as a jump condition. –Conservation of Mass or. If the shock slows the plasma then the plasma density increases. –Conservation of Momentum where the first term is the rate of change of momentum and the second and third terms are the gradients of the gas and magnetic pressures in the normal direction.

6. –Conservation of momentum. The subscript t refers to components that are transverse to the shock (i.e. parallel to the shock surface ). –Conservation of energy There we have used The first two terms are the flux of kinetic energy (flow energy and internal energy) while the last two terms come from the electromagnetic energy flux –Gauss Law gives –Faraday’s Law gives

7. The jump conditions are a set of 6 equations. If we want to find the downstream quantities given the upstream quantities then there are 6 unknowns (,v n,,v t,p,B n,B t ). The solutions to these equations are not necessarily shocks. These are conservation laws and a multitude of other discontinuities can also be described by these equations. Types of Discontinuities in Ideal MHD Contact Discontinuity, Density jumps arbitrary, all others continuous. No plasma flow. Both sides flow together at v t. Tangential Discontinuity, Complete separation. Plasma pressure and field change arbitrarily, but pressure balance Rotational Discontinuity, Large amplitude intermediate wave, field and flow change direction but not magnitude.

8. Types of Shocks in Ideal MHD Shock Waves Flow crosses surface of discontinuity accompanied by compression. Parallel Shock ( along shock normal) B unchanged by shock. Perpendicular Shock P and B increase at shock Oblique Shocks Fast Shock P, and B increase, B bends away from normal Slow Shock P increases, B decreases, B bends toward normal. Intermediate Shock B rotates 180 0 in shock plane. [p]=0 non-compressive, propagates at u A, density jump in anisotropic case.

9. Configuration of magnetic field lines for fast and slow shocks. The lines are closer together for a fast shock, indicating that the field strength increases.

10. Quasi-perpendicular and quasi-parallel shocks. –Call the angle between and the normal θ Bn. –Quasi-perpendicular shocks have θ Bn > 45 0 and quasi-parallel have θ Bn < 45 0. –. Perpendicular shocks are sharper and more laminar. –Parallel shocks are highly turbulent. –The reason for this is that perpendicular shocks constrain the waves to the shock plane while parallel shocks allow waves to leak out along the magnetic field –In these examples of the Earth’s bow shock – N is in the normal direction, L is northward and M is azimuthal.

11. Examples of the change in plasma parameters across the bow shock – The solar wind is super- magnetosonic so the purpose of the shock is to slow the solar wind down so the flow can go around the obstacle. – The density and temperature increase. – The magnetic field (not shown) also increases. –The maximum compression at a strong shock is 4 but 2 is more typical.

12. Particles can be accelerated in the shock (ions to 100’s of keV and electrons to 10’s of keV). Some can leak out and if they have sufficiently high energies they can out run the shock. (This is a unique property of collisionless shocks.) At Earth the interplanetary magnetic field has an angle to the Sun-Earth line of about 45 0. The first field line to touch the shock is the tangent field line. –At the tangent line the angle between the shock normal and the IMF is 90 0. –Lines further downstream have Particles have parallel motion along the field line ( ) and cross field drift motion ( ). –All particles have the same –The most energetic particles will move farther from the shock before they drift the same distance as less energetic particles The first particles observed behind the tangent line are electrons with the highest energy electrons closest to the tangent line – electron foreshock. A similar region for ions is found farther downstream – ion foreshock.

13. For compressive fast-mode and slow-mode oblique shocks the upstream and downstream magnetic field directions and the shock normal all lie in the same plane. (Coplanarity Theorem) The transverse component of the momentum equation can be written as and Faraday’s Law gives Therefore both and are parallel to and thus are parallel to each other. Thus. Expanding If and must be parallel. The plane containing one of these vectors and the normal contains both the upstream and downstream fields. Since this means both and are perpendicular to the normal and

14. Structure of the bow shock. –Since both the density and B increase this is a fast mode shock. –The field has a sharp jump called the ramp preceded by a gradual rise called the foot. –The field right behind the shock is higher than its eventual downstream value. This is called the overshoot.

15. Flow streamlines and velocity magnitude in the magnetosheath. These are results from a global magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the interaction of the solar wind with the magnetosphere when the interplanetary magnetic field is northward.

16. The magnetic field (top), the density (middle) and the temperature of the plasma all increase downstream of the bow shock. In the bottom panel the thermal pressure (P=nkT) also increases. The figures come from a global magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the magnetosphere. The region between the bow shock and magnetopause containing compressed and heated solar wind plasma is the magnetosheath.

17. Magnetic field lines from a global MHD simulation of the interaction of the solar wind and the magnetosphere for northward IMF. The red lines are in the magnetosheath. Note most of magnetosheath field lines are concave away from the Sun. Flows in the magnetosheath are accelerated by pressure gradients and the tension on these field lines.

18. Observations of the magnetic field near the magnetopause from the ISEE satellites. The magnetosphere is on either end of the figure. The region in between is the magnetosheath. The magnetic field of the magnetosheath is characterized by oscillations in the magnetic field.